UC-NRLF 


SSfi 


THE  JAPANESE  INVASION 


Hmnr  rmttr  of 


THE  JAPANESE 
INVASION 

A  Study  in  the  Psychology 
of    Inter-Racial    Contacts 

A  DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF 
ARTS  AND  LITERATURE  IN  CANDIDACY  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF 

DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

(THE  GRADUATE  DIVINITY  SCHOOL: 

PRACTICAL  THEOLOGY) 


BY 

JESSE  FREDERICK  STEINER 


A  Private  Edition 

Distributed  by 
The  University  of  Chicago  Libraries 

The  Trade  Edition  is  Published  by 

A.  C.  McCLURG  &  CO. 

CHICAGO 

1917 


Copyright 

A.   C.    McCLUEG   &   CO. 
1917 


Published  February,  1917 


PREFACE 

^pHOUGHTFUL  students  of  our  immigration  prob- 
-^  lem  are  more  and  more  turning  their  attention  to 
the  immigrant  invasion  from  the  Orient,  now  small  in 
volume  but  impelled  by  powerful  forces  that  may  some 
day  be  beyond  our  control.  The  overwhelming  num- 
bers of  the  Asiatics,  the  social  and  economic  discontent 
of  the  people,  and  the  aggressive  nationalism  of  the 
Japanese  are  danger  signals  that  are  arousing  us  from 
our  complacent  feelings  of  security.  Vast  possibilities 
for  both  good  and  evil  are  bound  up  in  the  rapidly 
developing  Orient.  It  is  of  the  highest  importance  that 
our  Government  work  out  an  Oriental  policy  based 
upon  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  Far  Eastern 
situation  and  designed  to  conserve  the  best  interests  of 
all  concerned. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  study  one  phase  of  this 
Oriental  problem  —  the  racial  aspects  of  the  Japanese 
immigration.  Its  interest  is  psychological  rather  than 
historical  or  economic.  Emphasis  is  laid  on  the  chang- 
ing mental  attitudes  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  and  on 
their  reaction  to  the  race  prejudice  they  are  compelled 
to  face. 

The  writer  tries  to  show  that  the  problem  is  deeper 
than  that  of  social  assimilation.  The  fundamental  dif- 
ficulty is  a  difference  of  color  and  physical  character- 


vi  Preface 

istics  so  marked  that  the  Japanese  cannot  merge  them- 
selves unnoticed  into  American  life.  This  makes  inevi- 
table the  establishment  of  a  color  line  between  the  East 
and  the  West,  no  less  real  than  that  between  the  White 
and  the  Black. 

Nothing  is  gained  by  ignoring  the  racial  aspects  of 
the  question  as  is  now  the  tendency  in  some  quarters.  A 
frank  statement  of  facts  is  one  step  toward  a  better 
mutual  understanding  and  lays  the  basis  for  a  more  sat- 
isfactory solution  of  the  Oriental  immigration  problem. 

The  author's  first  interest  in  this  problem  arose  dur- 
ing his  seven  years*  residence  in  Japan  as  a  teacher  in  a 
mission  college  in  Sendai.  Without  the  background 
gained  by  this  long  contact  with  the  Japanese  people, 
this  study  could  not  have  been  carried  out. 

Among  the  many  friends,  both  Japanese  and  Ameri- 
can, who  have  furnished  data  of  various  kinds,  special 
mention  should  be  made  of  Dr.  William  G.  Seiple,  of 
Sendai,  Japan,  who  has  been  at  great  pains  to  keep  the 
author  in  close  touch  with  public  opinion  in  Japan.  The 
author  wishes  especially  to  acknowledge  his  great  in- 
debtedness to  Dr.  Robert  E.  Park,  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  under  whose  patient  and  stimulating  super- 
vision this  book  was  written. 

J.  F.  STEINER 

Chicago,  January, 


INTRODUCTION 

'T^HERE  is  a  conviction,  widespread  in  America  at 
-*-  the  present  time,  that  one  of  the  most  fruitful 
sources  of  international  wars  are  racial  prejudice  and 
national  egotism.  This  conviction  is  the  nerve  of  much 
present  day  pacifism.  It  has  been  the  inspiration  of 
such  unofficial  diplomacy,  for  example,  as  that  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  its  effort 
to  bring  about  a  better  understanding  between  the  Jap- 
anese and  America.  This  book  is  an  attempt  to  study 
this  phenomenon  of  race  prejudice  and  national  ego- 
tism, so  far  as  it  reveals  itself  in  the  relations  of  the 
Japanese  and  the  Americans  in  this  country,  and  to 
estimate  the  role  it  is  likely  to  play  in  the  future  rela- 
tions of  the  two  countries. 

So  far  as  I  know,  an  investigation  of  precisely  this 
nature  has  not  hitherto  been  made.  One  reason  for 
this  is,  perhaps,  that  not  until  very  recent  times  did  the 
problem  present  itself  in  precisely  this  form.  So  long 
as  the  nations  lived  in  practical  isolation,  carrying  on 
their  intercourse  through  the  medium  of  professional 
diplomats,  and  knowing  each  other  mainly  through 
the  products  they  exchanged,  census  reports,  and  the 
discreet  observations  of  polite  travellers,  racial  preju- 
dice did  not  disturb  international  relations.  With  the 
extension  of  international  commerce,  the  increase  of 

vii 


viii  Introduction 


immigration,  and  the  interpenetration  of  peoples,  the 
scene  changes.  The  railway,  the  steamship,  and  the 
telegraph  are  rapidly  mobilizing  the  peoples  of  the 
earth.  The  nations  are  coming  out  of  their  isolation, 
and  distances  which  separated  the  different  races  are 
rapidly  giving  way  before  the  extension  of  communi- 
cation. 

The  same  human  motives,  which  have  led  men  to 
spread  a  network  of  trade-communication  over  the 
whole  earth,  in  order  to  bring  about  an  exchange  of 
commodities,  are  now  bringing  about  a  new  distribu- 
tion of  populations.  When  these  populations  become 
as  mobile  as  the  commodities  of  commerce  there  will 
be  practically  no  limits — except  those  artificial  barriers, 
like  the  customs  and  immigration  restrictions,  main- 
tained by  individual  states — to  a  world  wide  economic 
and  personal  competition.  Furthermore,  when  the 
natural  barriers  are  broken  down,  artificial  barriers 
will  be  maintained  with  increasing  difficulty. 

Some  conception  of  the  extent  of  the  changes  which 
are  taking  place  in  the  world  under  the  influence  of 
these  forces  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in 
1870  the  cost  of  transporting  a  bushel  of  grain  in 
Europe  was  so  great  as  to  prohibit  its  sale  beyond  a 
radius  of  two  hundred  miles  from  a  primary  market. 
By  1883  the  importation  of  grains  from  the  virgin 
soil  of  the  Western  prairies  in  the  United  States  had 
brought  about  an  agricultural  crisis  in  every  country 
in  Western  Europe. 

One  may  illustrate,  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  esti- 


Introduction  ix 


mate  the  economic  changes  which  have  been  brought 
about  by  the  enormous  increase  in  ocean  transporta- 
tion. In  1840  the  first  Cunard  liner,  of  740  horse- 
power with  a  speed  of  8.5  knots  per  hour,  was 
launched.  In  1907,  when  the  Lusitania  was  built, 
ocean-going  vessels  had  attained  a  speed  of  25  knots 
an  hour  and  were  drawn  by  engines  of  70,0x30  horse- 
power. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  economic  changes  which 
have  been  brought  about  by  the  changes  in  ocean  trans- 
portation represented  by  these  figures.  It  is  still  less 
possible  to  predict  the  political  effects  of  the  steadily 
increasing  mobility  of  the  peoples  of  the  earth.  At 
the  present  time  this  mobility  has  already  reached  a 
point  at  which  it  is  often  easier  and  cheaper  to  trans- 
port the  world's  population  to  the  sources  of  raw  mate- 
rials than  to  carry  the  world's  manufactures  to  the 
established  seats  of  population. 

With  the  progressive  rapidity,  ease,  and  security  of 
transportation,  and  the  increase  in  communication, 
there  follows  an  increasing  detachment  of  the  popu- 
lation from  the  soil,  and  a  concurrent  concentration  in 
great  cities.  These  cities,  in  time,  become  the  centers 
of  vast  numbers  of  uprooted  individuals,  casual  and 
seasonal  laborers,  tenement  and  apartment  house 
dwellers,  sophisticated  and  emancipated  urbanites,  who 
are  bound  together  neither  by  local  attachment  nor  by 
ties  of  family,  clan,  religion,  or  nationality.  Under 
such  conditions  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  same 
economic  motive  which  leads  every  trader  to  sell  in  the 


Introduction 


highest  market  and  to  buy  in  the  lowest  will  steadily 
increase  and  intensify  the  tendency,  which  has  already 
reached  enormous  proportions  of  the  population  in 
overcrowded  regions,  with  diminished  resources,  to 
seek  their  fortunes,  either  permanently  or  temporarily, 
in  the  new  countries  of  undeveloped  resources. 

Already  the  extension  of  commerce  and  the  increase 
of  immigration  have  brought  about  an  international 
and  interracial  situation  that  has  strained  the  inherited 
political  order  of  the  United  States.  It  is  this  same 
expansive  movement  of  population  and  of  commerce, 
together  with  the  racial  and  national  rivalries  that  have 
sprung  from  them,  which  first  destroyed  the  traditional 
scheme  of  international  control  which  rested  on  it. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  immediate  causes  of  the 
world  war,  the  more  remote  sources  of  the  conflict 
must  undoubtedly  be  sought  in  the  great  cosmic  forces 
which  have  broken  down  the  barriers  which  formerly 
separated  the  races  and  nationalities  of  the  world,  and 
forced  them  into  new  intimacies  and  new  forms  of 
competition,  rivalry,  and  conflict. 

Since  1870  the  conditions  which  I  have  attempted 
to  sketch  have  steadily  forced  upon  America  and  the 
nations  of  Europe  the  problem  of  assimilating  their 
heterogeneous  populations.  What  we  call  the  race 
problem  is  an  incident  of  this  process  of  assimilation, 
and  is  an  evidence  of  its  failure. 

The  present  volume  touches  but  does  not  deal  with 
the  general  situation  which  I  have  briefly  sketched.  It 
is,  as  its  title  suggests,  a  study  in  "racial  contacts/'  and 


Introduction  xi 


is  an  attempt  to  distinguish  and  trace  to  their  sources 
the  attitudes  and  the  sentiments — that  is  to  say,  mutual 
prejudices — which  have  been  and  still  are  a  source  of 
mutual  irritation  and  misunderstanding  between  the 
Japanese  and  American  peoples. 

Fundamentally,  prejudice  against  the  Japanese  in  the 
United  States  is  merely  the  prejudice  which  attaches 
to  every  alien  and  immigrant  people.  The  immigrant 
from  Europe,  like  the  immigrant  from  Asia,  comes  to 
this  country  because  he  finds  here  a  freedom  of  indi- 
vidual action  and  an  economic  opportunity  which  he 
did  not  find  at  home.  It  is  an  instance  of  the  general 
tendency  of  populations  to  move  from  an  area  of  rela- 
tively closed  to  one  of  relatively  open  resources.  The 
movement  is  as  inevitable  and,  in  the  long  run,  as  re- 
sistless as  that  which  draws  water  from  its  mountain 
sources  to  the  sea.  It  is  one  way  of  redressing  the 
economic  balance  and  bringing  about  an  economic 
equilibrium. 

The  very  circumstances  under  which  this  modern 
movement  of  population  has  arisen  implies  then  that 
the  standard  of  living,  if  not  the  cultural  level,  of  the 
immigrant  is  lower  than  that  of  the  native  population. 
The  consequence  is  that  immigration  brings  with  it  a 
new  and  disturbing  form  of  competition,  the  competi- 
tion, namely,  of  peoples  of  a  lower  and  of  a  higher 
standard  of  living.  The  effect  of  this  competition, 
where  it  is  free  and  unrestricted,  is  either  to  lower  the 
living  standards  of  the  native  population;  to  expel 
them  from  the  vocations  in  which  the  immigrants  are 


xii  Introduction 


able  or  permitted  to  compete;  or  what  may,  perhaps, 
be  regarded  as  a  more  sinister  consequence,  to  induce 
such  a  restriction  of  the  birth  rate  of  the  native  popu- 
lation as  to  insure  its  ultimate  extinction.  The  latter 
is,  in  fact,  what  seems  to  be  happening  in  the  New 
England  manufacturing  towns  where  the  birth  rate 
in  the  native  population  for  some  years  past  has  fallen 
below  the  death  rate,  so  that  the  native  stock  has  long 
since  ceased  to  reproduce  itself.  The  foreign  peoples, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  rapidly  replacing  the  native 
stocks,  not  merely  by  the  influence  of  new  immigra- 
tion but  because  of  a  relatively  high  excess  of  births 
over  deaths. 

It  has  been  assumed  that  the  prejudice  which  blinds 
the  people  of  one  race  to  the  virtues  of  another,  and 
leads  them  to  exaggerate  that  other's  faults,  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  misunderstanding  which  further  knowledge 
will  dispel.  This  is  so  far  from  true  that  it  would 
be  more  exact  to  say  that  our  racial  misunderstandings 
are  merely  the  expression  of  our  racial  antipathies. 
Behind  these  antipathies  are  deep-seated,  vital,  and  in- 
stinctive impulses.  These  antipathies  represent  col- 
lision of  invisible  forces,  the  clash  of  interests,  dimly 
felt  but  not  yet  clearly  perceived.  They  are  present  in 
every  situation  where  the  fundamental  interests  of 
races  and  peoples  are  not  yet  regulated  by  some  law. 
custom,  or  any  other  modus  Vivendi  which  commands 
the  assent  and  the  mutual  support  of  both  parties.  We 
hate  people  because  we  fear  them;  because  our  inter- 
ests, as  we  understand  them  at  any  rate,  run  counter 


Introduction  xiii 


to  theirs.  On  the  other  hand,  good  will  is  founded  in 
the  long  run  upon  cooperation.  The  extension  of  our 
socalled  altruistic  sentiments  is  made  possible  only  by 
the  organization  of  our  otherwise  conflicting  interests 
and  by  the  extension  of  the  machinery  of  cooperation 
and  social  control. 

Race  prejudice  may  be  regarded  as  a  spontaneous, 
more  or  less  instinctive  defense-reaction,  the  practical 
effect  of  which  is  to  restrict  free  competition  between 
races.  Its  importance  as  a  social  function  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  free  competition,  particularly  between 
people  with  different  standards  of  living,  seems  to  be, 
if  not  the  original  source,  at  least  the  stimulus  to  which 
race  prejudice  is  the  response. 

From  this  point  of  view  we  may  regard  caste,  or 
$ven  slavery,  as  one  of  those  accommodations  through 
which  the  race  problem  found  a  natural  solution.  Caste, 
by  relegating  the  subject  race  to  an  inferior  status, 
gives  to  each  race  at  any  rate  a  monopoly  of  its  own 
tasks.  When  this  status  is  accepted  by  the  subject  peo- 
ple, as  is  the  case  where  the  caste  or  slavery  systems 
become  fully  established,  racial  competition  ceases  and 
racial  animosity  tends  to  disappear.  That  is  the  ex- 
planation of  the  intimate  and  friendly  relations  which 
so  often  existed  in  slavery  between  master  and  serv- 
ant. It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  hear  it  said  today 
that  "  the  Negro  is  all  right  in  his  place."  In  his  place 
he  is  a  convenience  and  not  a  competitor.  Each  race 
being  in  its  place,  no  obstacle  to  racial  cooperation 
exists. 


xiv  Introduction 


The  fact  that  race  prejudice  is  due  to,  or  is  in  some 
sense  dependent  upon,  race  competition  is  further 
manifest  by  a  fact  which  Mr.  Steiner  has  emphasized, 
namely,  that  prejudice  against  the  Japanese  is  nowhere 
uniform  throughout  the  United  States.  It  is  only 
where  Japanese  are  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
actually  disturb  the  economic  status  of  the  white  popu- 
lation that  prejudice  has  manifested  itself  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  demand  serious  consideration.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact,  also,  that  prejudice  against  the  Jap- 
anese is  now  more  intense  than  it  is  against  any  other 
oriental  people.  The  reason  for  this,  as  Mr.  Steiner 
has  pointed  out,  is  that  the  Japanese  are  more  aggres- 
sive, more  disposed  to  test  the  sincerity  of  that  state- 
ment of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  which  de- 
clares that  all  men  are  equally  entitled  to  "  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness"  -a  statement,  by  the 
way,  which  is  merely  a  forensic  assertion  of  the  laissez- 
faire  doctrine  of  free  and  unrestricted  competition  as 
applied  to  the  relations  of  individual  men. 

The  Japanese,  the  Chinese,  they  too  would  be  all 
right  in  their  place,  no  doubt.  That  place,  if  they  find 
it,  will  be  one  in  which  they  do  not  greatly  intensify 
and  so  embitter  the  struggle  for  existence  of  the  white 
man.  I  The  difficulty  is  that  the  Japanese  is  still  less 
disposed  than  the  Negro  or  the  Chinese  to  submit  to 
the  regulations  of  a  caste  system  and  to  stay  in  his 
place.  The  Japanese  are  an  organized  and  morally 
efficient  nation.  They  have  the  national  pride  and 
the  national  egotism  which  rests  on  the  consciousness 


h  troduction  xv 


of  this  efficiency.  In  fact  it  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  national  egotism,  if  one  pleases  to  call  it  such, 
is  essential  to  national  efficiency,  just  as  a  certain 
irascibility  of  temper  seems  to  be  essential  to  a  good 
fighter. 

Another  difficulty  is  that  caste  and  the  limitation  of 
free  competition  is  economically  unsound,  even  though 
it  be  politically  desirable.  A  national  policy  of  national 
efficiency  demands  that  every  individual  have  not 
merely  the  opportunity  but  the  preparation  necessary 
to  perform  that  particular  service  for  the  community 
for  which  his  natural  disposition  and  aptitude  fit  him, 
irrespective  of  race  or  "  previous  condition." 

Finally,  caste  and  the  limitation  of  economic  oppor- 
tunity is  contrary,  if  not  to  our  traditions,  at  least  to 
our  political  principles.  That  means  that  there  will 
always  be  an  active  minority  opposed  on  grounds  of 
political  sentiment  to  any  settlement  based  on  the  caste 
system  as  applied  to  either  the  black  or  the  brown  man. 
This  minority  will  be  small  in  parts  of  the  country  im- 
mediately adversely  affected  by  the  competition  of  the 
invading  race.  It  will  be  larger  in  regions  which  are 
not  greatly  affected.  It  will  be  increased  if  immigra- 
tion is  so  rapid  as  to  make  the  competition  more  acute. 
We  must  look  to  other  measures  for  the  solution  of 
the  Japanese  problem,  if  it  should  prove  true,  as  seems 
probable,  that  we  are  not  able  or,  for  various  reasons, 
do  not  care  to  hold  back  permanently  the  rising  tide 
of  the  oriental  invasion. 

I  have  said  that  fundamentally  and  in  principle  preju- 


xvi  Introduction 


dice  against  the  Japanese  in  America  today  was  iden- 
tical with  the  prejudice  which  attaches  to  any  immi- 
grant people.  There  is,  as  Mr.  Steiner  has  pointed  out, 
a  difference.  This  is  due  to  the  existence  in  the  human 
mind  of  a  mechanism  by  which  we  inevitably  and  auto- 
matically classify  every  individual  human  being  we 
meet.  When  a  race  bears  an  external  mark  by  which 
every  individual  member  of  it  can  infallibly  be  identi- 
fied, that  race  is  by  that  fact  set  apart  and  segregated. 
Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Negroes  cannot  move  among 
us  with  the  same  freedom  as  the  members  of  other 
races  because  they  bear  marks  which  identify  them  as 
members  of  their  race.  This  fact  isolates  them.  In 
the  end,  the  effect  of  this  isolation,  both  in  its  effects 
upon  the  Japanese  themselves,  and  upon  the  human 
environment  in  which  they  live,  is  profound.  Isolation 
is  at  once  a  cause  and  an  effect  of  race  prejudice.  It 
is  a  vicious  circle  —  isolation,  prejudice;  prejudice,  iso- 
lation. Were  there  no  other  reasons  which  urge  us  to 
consider  the  case  of  the  Japanese  and  the  oriental  peo- 
ples in  a  category  different  from  that  of  the  European 
immigrant,  this  fact,  that  he  is  bound  to  live  in  the 
American  community  a  more  or  less  isolated  life, 
would  impel  us  to  do  so. 

I  have  called  what  I  have  here  written  an  introduc- 
tion. It  is  perhaps  less  an  introduction  than  an  inter- 
pretation. As  such,  however,  it  may  serve  its  purpose, 
which  has  been  to  add,  if  possible,  something  to  the 
significance  of  this  study  by  a  review  of  the  larger 
situation,  in  which  its  special  problem  lies. 


Introduction  xvii 


In  conclusion,  I  may  perhaps  say  in  a  word  what 
seems  to  me  the  practical  bearing  of  Mr.  Steiner's 
book.  Race  prejudice  is  a  mechanism  of  the  group 
mind  which  acts  reflexly  and  automatically  in  response 
to  its  proper  stimulus.  That  stimulus  seems  to  be,  in 
the  cases  where  I  have  met  it,  unrestricted  competition 
of  peoples  with  different  standards  of  living.  Racial 
animosities  and  the  socalled  racial  misunderstandings 
that  grow  out  of  them  cannot  be  explained  or  argued 
away.  They  can  only  be  affected  when  there  has  been 
a  readjustment  of  relations  and  an  organization  of 
interests  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  a  larger  meas- 
ure of  cooperation  and  a  less  amount  of  friction  and 
conflict.  This  demands  something  more  than  a  diplo- 
macy of  kind  words.  It  demands  a  national  policy 
based  on  an  unflinching  examination  of  the  facts. 

ROBERT  E.  PARK. 
The  University  of  Chicago, 
January  25, 


CONTENTS 


APTE 

:R 

PAGE 

I 

Our  First  Acquaintance  with  the  Japanese 

i 

II 

The  Japanese  Attitude  Toward  the  West    . 

16 

III 

The  Closing  of  the  Open  Door    .... 

34 

IV 

The  Problem  from  the  Japanese  Viewpoint 

54 

V 

The  Japanese  "  Menace  " 

68 

VI     The  Isolation  of  Japanese  in  America    .     .  93 

VII     The  Reaction  of  the  Japanese  to  American 

Economic  Conditions 1 12 

VIII     Organization  and  Solidarity  of  Japanese 

Immigrants 130 

IX     The  Problem  of  Intermarriage     ....  149 

X     The  Japanese  in  America  as  a  Race  Prob- 
lem      175 

XI     The  World  Significance  of  Waking  Asia    .  195 

Bibliography 211 

Index    . 227 


CHAPTER  I 

OUR    FIRST    ACQUAINTANCE    WITH    THE   JAPANESE 

'IpHE  first  Japanese  to  set  foot  upon  the  American 
-*-  continent  came  to  Mexico  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  as  guests  of  Spanish  colonists  who 
then  were  the  only  Europeans  residing  on  the  western 
coast  of  America.  The  same  aggressiveness  and 
organizing  ability  and  capacity  for  leadership,  which 
have  been  such  prominent  factors  in  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  Japan,  were  also  characteristic  of  the  Japanese 
of  that  day. 

Under  the  leadership  of  ambitious  rulers  a  Japanese 
mercantile  fleet  was  organized  and  trade  routes  were 
established  to  such  distant  points  as  India  and  Java. 
Their  three-masted,  square-rigged  vessels,  very  little 
smaller  than  those  used  by  European  sailors,  were  well 
adapted  for  long  ocean  voyages,  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  skilled  Japanese  navigators,  became  familiar 
objects  in  every  far  eastern  port.  Japanese  colonists 
took  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  go  abroad  in 
large  numbers.  Over  15,000  Japanese,  it  is  said,  were 
residing  in  the  Philippines  during  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  Japanese  were  quick  to  see  the  advantages  of 
foreign  trade  so  eagerly  sought  by  the  progressive^ 
nations  of  Europe,  and  were  developing  a  policy  of 

I 


The  Japanese  Invasion 


expansion  that  seemed  destined  to  make  them  leaders 
of  the  Orient.  Spanish  vessels  plying  between  Spain's 
far  eastern  possessions  and  Mexico  were  urged  to  call 
at  the  ports  of  Japan.  Japanese  sailors  employed  on 
these  Spanish  ships  learned  the  route  across  the  Pacific 
and  brought  back  glowing  reports  of  the  New  World. 
In  1610  and  1613  two  Japanese  embassies  proceeded 
in  Spanish  ships  to  Acapulco,  Mexico,  where  they 
remained  a  few  months  studying  the  conditions  of 
trade  in  New  Spain.  The  desire  of  the  Spaniards 
to  promote  friendly  relations  between  the  two  countries 
led  them  to  extend  a  cordial  welcome  to  their  visitors, 
who  were  given  every  opportunity  for  observation  and 
travel.1 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  plans  of  the  Japanese 
for  securing  a  foothold  on  the  American  continent, 
they  were  destined  not  to  be  carried  out,  for  soon  after 
the  return  of  these  embassies  to  Japan  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  country  was  so  radically  changed  that 
further  foreign  intercourse  became  impossible.  The 
desire  of  the  Japanese  rulers  to  profit  by  foreign  trade 
was  outweighed  by  their  fear  of  foreign  aggression. 
The  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  residing  in  Japan 
were  no  longer  regarded  as  mere  religious  propagan- 
dists but  as  political  agents  of  their  home  governments, 
whose  real  purpose  was  to  undermine  the  loyalty  of 
their  converts.2  In  the  minds  of  the  Japanese  authori- 

1  Nuttall,  Z.,  Earliest  Historical  Relations  Between  Mexico  and 
apan,  Univ.  of  Calif.  Publications  of  Arch.  &  Eth.,  iv,  1-47,  1906. 

2  Murdoch,  J.,  A  History  of  Japan  During  Century  of  Early 
Foreign  Intercourse,  Kobe,  Japan,  pp.  45-48. 


Our  First  Acquaintance 


ties,  the  safety  of  their  country  lay  only  in  seclusion. 
To  accomplish  this  end  all  foreigners  were  banished 
and  Japanese  subjects  were  forbidden  to  go  abroad. 
In  1636  during  the  shogunate  of  Tokugawa  lyemitsu 
all  intercourse  with  Mexico  was  cut  off  and  thus  ended 
what  might  have  been  the  beginning  of  Japanese 
expansion  in  the  West.  If  it  had  not  been  for  this 
change  in  Japan's  foreign  policy,  aggressive  Japanese 
traders  and  colonists  might  have  explored  our  whole 
western  coast  and  established  settlements  in  California 
long  before  the  arrival  of  the  people  of  the  white  race. 
It  is  of  course  futile  to  discuss  what  might  have  been, 
but  it  takes  no  great  stretch  of  the  imagination  to 
picture  the  changed  conditions  that  would  now  prevail 
on  our  western  coast  if  Japan  had  not  lost  her  chance 
to  gain  the  mastery  of  the  Pacific  in  the  seventeenth 
century.1 

For  more  than  two  hundred  years  Japan  maintained 
this  policy  of  seclusion  so  rigidly  that  very  few  Japa- 
nese managed  to  get  abroad.  Occasionally,  Japanese 
fishing  junks,  driven  far  out  to  sea  by  sudden  storms, 
were  carried  by  the  Black  Current  across  the  Pacific 
and  finally  stranded  on  the  western  coast  of  America 
and  its  outlying  islands,  a  fact  which  some  writers 
have  used  to  support  the  theory  that  the  Japanese  are 
the  ancestors  of  the  American  Indians.2 

As  early  as   1840,  American  vessels  crossing  the 

1  Kennan,  George,  "  How  Japan  Lost  Her  Chance  in  the  Pacific," 
the  Outlook,  June  27,  1914,  pp.  488-93. 

2  Davis,    H.,    "Japanese    Wrecks    in    American   Waters,"   the 
Overland  Monthly,  Sept.,  1872,  pp.  353-60. 


The  Japanese  Invasion 


Pacific  rescued  shipwrecked  Japanese  fishermen  and 
brought  them  to  America,  One  of  the  first  of  these 
rescued  Japanese  to  stay  for  any  length  of  time  in 
America  was  Nakahama  Manjiro,  a  boy  of  fifteen, 
who  was  taken  to  Fair  Haven,  Massachusetts,  where 
he  attended  school  for  six  years.  Upon  his  return  to 
Japan  in  1849  he  was  treated  harshly  by  the  Japanese 
authorities  because  he  had  broken  the  laws  which 
forbade  any  Japanese  to  go  abroad.  Fortunately  he 
escaped  severe  punishment,  and  when  Commodore 
Perry  arrived  in  Japan  in  1853,  Nakahama  acted  as 
one  of  the  interpreters  and  helped  to  convince  the 
Japanese  of  the  friendliness  of  America.1 

1  Hawks,  F.  L.,  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  of  Perry  to  Japan. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  p.  60. 

I.  Nitobe.  The  Intercourse  Between  the  United  States  and  Japan, 
gives  the  following  account  of  one  of  these  Japanese  fishermen: 

"  Sentaro  —  better  known  by  his  American  nickname,  Sam 
Patch  —  was  one  of  seventeen  unfortunates  who,  while  manning 
a  junk,  were  blown  out  to  sea,  rescued  by  an  American  vessel  and 
taken  to  San  Francisco.  Sam  Patch  accompanied  the  Perry  squad- 
ron. All  the  while  they  sailed,  he  was  apprehending  that  some  ill 
would  befall  his  neck  and  was  constantly  repeating  'shimpai, 
shimpai'  (Japanese  word  for  troubled  in  mind),  showing  with 
what  fear  and  trembling  he  came  once  more  to  take  a  glance  at 
his  native  land.  He  was  asked  by  the  Japanese  officials  to  stay  in 
the  country  and  engage  in  building  '  black  ships ' ;  but  nothing 
could  free  him  of  his  '  shimpai '  which  became  almost  a  part  of 
his  constitution  insomuch  as  it  gave  him  the  sobriquet  of  '  Sam 
Patch/  He  was  placed  under  the  care  of  Mr.  J.  Goble,  who  took 
him  to  Hamilton,  New  York,  where  the  poor  heathen  was  dubbed 
a  Christian  by  being  dipped  into  water.  In  1860,  when  Goble  came 
to  Japan  as  a  missionary,  he  took  Sam  with  him ;  but  at  that  time 
when  a  scrappy  knowledge  of  English  mipht  be  turned  to  very 
good  account,  Sam  lacked  Yankee  pluck  and  he  lived  and  died  a 
poor  house  servant."  (p.  157.) 


Our  First  Acquaintance 


It  was  not,  however,  until  1860  that  America  re- 
ceived an  important  visit  from  the  Japanese.  In  that 
year  a  special  embassy  was  sent  to  Washington  by  the 
Japanese  government  to  exchange  the  ratifications  of 
the  treaty  of  1858.  Through  the  efforts  of  our  repre- 
sentative in  Japan,  Townsend  Harris,  the  Embassy  was 
given  passage  in  American  naval  vessels  and  was 
received  as  guests  of  the  American  government.  This 
Embassy  consisted  of  a  Chief  Ambassador  and  a  Vice- 
Ambassador,  who  were  princes  of  the  highest  rank  in 
the  Empire,  a  Censor  and  a  Vice-Governor,  who  were 
also  of  high  rank,  and  a  retinue  of  officers,  interpreters, 
physicians,  and  servants,  the  whole  party  numbering 
seventy-one  persons. 

The  reception  of  the  Embassy  at  San  Francisco  was 
very  enthusiastic.  Twenty  thousand  dollars  was 
appropriated  from  the  city  treasury  to  provide  for 
their  entertainment.  The  city  authorities  and  leading 
citizens  showed  the  Japanese  every  possible  consider- 
ation and  did  all  in  their  power  to  make  their  stay  in 
the  city  pleasant.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  state  and 
city  authorities,  a  public  reception  was  given  the  Em- 
bassy in  the  largest  hall  in  the  city,  which  was  attended 
by  an  immense  crowd  of  people.1 

The  trip  from  San  Francisco  to  the  eastern  states 
was  made  by  way  of  Panama,  the  Embassy  arriving 
in  Washington  on  May  13,  1860.  The  Government 
had  made  thorough  preparation  for  the  reception  of 
the  Japanese  visitors  and  treated  them  with  the  dis- 

*  Harper's  Weekly,  April  28,  1860. 


The  Japanese  Invasion 


tinction  and  courtesy  befitting  their  rank.  They  were 
granted  interviews  by  the  President  and  chief  officers 
of  state,  receptions  and  banquets  were  held  in  their 
honor,  and  facilities  were  given  them  to  visit  the  places 
of  interest  in  the  city  and  become  acquainted  with 
American  institutions.1  The  newspapers  of  that  day 
devoted  a  large  amount  of  space  to  the  movements 
of  the  Embassy  and  published  much  information  about 
Japan  and  things  Japanese.  The  friendly  tone  of  the 
newspaper  press  can  be  seen  in  the  following  quotation 
from  an  editorial : 

This  Japanese  Embassy  is  a  matter  of  the  highest 
national  and  commercial  importance.  The  Japanese  are 
the  British  of  Asia.  Like  our  ancestors  of  the  British 
Isles,  they  are  of  insular  origin  and  full  of  insular  virtues 
and  insular  prejudices.  They  despise  foreigners;  but 
they  know  how  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Many  of  their 
customs  seem  absurd  to  us;  but  they  are  honest  in  their 
adoption  and  thorough  in  their  observance.  Their  coun- 
try produces  a  number  of  commodities  which  would  find 
a  sale  here,  and  they  consume  many  articles  which  we 
produce.  Satisfy  them  that  commercial  intercourse  with 
us  would  be  beneficial  to  them,  and  a  valuable  trade  will 
be  created 

Independently,  however,  of  immediate  commercial 
benefits,  the  establishment  of  friendly  relations  with  the 
Japanese  cannot  fail  to  be  of  marked  advantage  to  our 
Pacific  States.  The  State  of  Oregon  an'd  the  future 
State  of  Washington  will  necessarily  become  intimately 
connected  with  their  nearest  neighbors  over  the  water. 
Of  those  neighbors,  Japan  is  the  one  best  worth  cultivat- 
ing. .  .  By  and  by  there  will  necessarily  grow  up  an 

1  Leslie's  Illustrated  Newspaper,  June  2,  1860. 


Our  First  Acquaintance 


interchange  not  only  of  commodities  but  of  men  between 
our  Pacific  States  and  the  Empire  of  Japan.  Our  people 
will  go  to  Japan  and  will  endeavor  to  show  the  Japanese 
the  best  side  of  the  American  character.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Japanese  —  if  good  relations  be  established  be- 
tween the  two  countries  —  will  send  out  some  of  their 
people  to  plant  Japanese  colonies  in  our  territory.  Of 
this  interchange,  the  benefit  will  be  obvious  and  mutual. 
Civilized  as  we  boast  of  being,  we  can  learn  much  of  the 
Japanese ;  if  nothing  more,  we  can  learn  the  duty  of 
obeying  the  laws.  In  every  point  of  view  the  visit  of 
the  Japanese  is  an  important  event,  and  we  fervently 
trust  that  all  classes  of  people  will  combine  to  do  them 
honor.1 

During  their  six  weeks'  visit  in  the  eastern  states, 
great  excitement  prevailed  wherever  they  appeared. 
Every  city  they  visited  strove  to  outdo  its  rival  in  pro- 
viding entertainment  for  the  distinguished  guests  of 
the  nation.  Record-breaking  crowds  assembled  in  the 
streets  to  see  them  pass  by.  The  climax  of  their 
American  visit  was  the  Grand  Ball  given  at  the  Metro- 
politan Hotel  by  the  city  of  New  York  on  June  25.  On 
this  occasion  it  is  asserted  that  more  than  ten  thousand 
of  the  leading  citizens  of  New  York  and  neighboring 
cities  were  present.  No  money  or  pains  were  spared 
in  the  effort  to  make  it  a  brilliant  affair.  A  contem- 
porary writer  states  that  "  the  whole  thing  was  arranged 
on  a  scale  of  unsurpassed  splendor,  prodigality,  and 
magnificence.  It  was  a  scene  of  festivity  altogether 
unparalleled  in  the  history  of  New  York/'  The  arrival 
of  the  Japanese  guests  at  the  reception  is  thus  described : 

1  Harper's  Weekly,  May  26,  1860. 


8  The  Japanese  Invasion 

The  Prince  Ambassadors  and  the  principal  officers  of 
the  Embassy  on  their  entrance  from  the  hotel  to  the  ball- 
room were  received  by  the  Joint  Committee  of  the  Com- 
mon Council  and  conducted  through  the  various  apart- 
ments appropriated  to  the  festivities  of  the  evening.  On 
their  entrance  the  beautiful  tune  of  "Kathleen  Mavour- 
neen  "  was  struck  up  by  the  band.  On  entering  the  prin- 
cipal ballroom,  chaperoned  by  the  members  of  the  Naval 
Commission,  they  were  conducted  through  the  throng 
of  guests,  who  opened  right  and  left,  leaving  a  lane  for 
them  to  pass  through  to  the  pavilion  which  had  been 
prepared  for  their  exclusive  accommodation  at  the  north 
of  the  building  on  the  stage  of  the  theater.  The  interest 
at  this  juncture  was  intense.  The  guests  spontaneously 
rose,  while  the  cry  ran  round  the  immense  building  of 
44  the  Japanese,  the  Japanese!"  Every  eye  was  strained 
and  everyone  present  stood  on  tiptoe  to  see  the  members 
of  the  unique  corps  diplomatique Of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  guests  we  can  only  say  that  it  was  in  every 
respect  in  keeping  with  the  brilliancy  of  the  scene  amid 
which  they  moved  with  so  much  taste  and  refinement. 
The  Japanese  Princes  were,  of  course,  the  principal 
attraction,  and  during  the  evening  were  the  observed  of 
all  observers.  They  were  placed  in  a  position  which 
suited  them  exactly,  for,  like  the  performers  in  a  theater, 
they  could  see  and  yet  be  seen.  Our  eastern  visitors 
seemed  to  be  greatly  delighted  at  the  appearance  and 
animation  of  the  festive  throng.  Never  before  in  their 
distant  eastern  homes  did  these  Japanese  gentlemen  get 
entangled  in  such  an  ocean  of  satins,  silk,  and  crinoline  as 
revolved  around  them  last  night.  They  could  do  nothing 
else  than  sit  down  in  quiet  amazement  at  the  rapid  evolu- 
tions made  by  the  lady  dancers,  who  twirled  around  in 
the  giddy  waltz  with  a  rapidity  that  would  have  done 
credit  to  an  artificial  fire-wheel.  The  Japanese  could  not 


Our  First  Acquaintance 


help  expressing  their  delight  at  all  they  saw  and  felt, 
which  they  did  by  briefly  articulated  expressions,  by 
gesticulations  and  smiles.1 

No  reader  of  the  contemporary  accounts  of  the 
reception  of  the  Embassy  can  doubt  the  sincerity  of  the 
welcome  extended  by  the  American  government.  The 
officers  of  state  in  their  addresses  of  welcome  and  in 
their  thoughtful  planning  for  the  comfort  of  the  Em- 
bassy made  every  effort  to  convince  the  Japanese  of 
our  friendly  attitude  toward  their  nation.  The  official 
welcome  in  all  its  formal  aspects  passed  off  in  the  most 
successful  manner  and  reflected  great  credit  upon  those 
who  had  it  in  charge. 

If  we  wish,  however,  to  understand  the  real  estimate 
that  was  placed  upon  the  Japanese  at  that  time,  we 
cannot  depend  entirely  upon  the  story  of  their  official 
welcome.  We  must  take  note  also  of  the  conduct  of 
the  mass  of  the  people,  in  this  their  first  contact  with 
the  Japanese,  in  order  to  learn  what  sentiments  and 
attitudes  they  revealed.  On  the  occasion  of  the  Em- 
bassy's visit  to  Philadelphia,  a  correspondent  gives  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  insults  the  Japanese  had  to  face. 

The  most  disgusting  and  brutal  language  was  unspar- 
ingly used  by  the  crowd  while  the  procession  was  passing 
over  the  route.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  city  where  the  "  governing  classes  "  most 
do  congregate.  For  instance,  at  one  point,  a  Naval  Com- 
missioner was  greeted  with  the  cry  of  "  Say,  you  man 
with  the  epaulets,  is  that  your  monkey  you  have  got  with 

1  Leslie's  Illustrated  Newspaper,  July  7,  1860. 


io  The  Japanese  Invasion 

you  ?  "  And  this  is  but  one  in  a  hundred  of  the  humors 
of  the  crowd.  It  is  to  be  particularly  regretted  that  many 
of  these  remarks  were  plainly  understood  by  a  portion  of 
the  Embassy.  This  morning  some  of  them  came  to  Cap- 
tains Du  Pont  and  Porter  and  said  they  feared  from 
their  conduct  yesterday  that  the  American  people  con- 
sidered them  very  ridiculous,  and  intimated  that  they 
should  not  be  so  severe  in  their  sarcasms,  as  the  Japa- 
nese considered  the  dress  and  manners  of  the  people  of 
this  country  equally  curious,  if  not  outlandish.  They 
were  evidently  under  the  impression  that  anything  but 
respect  had  been  shown  to  them  by  many  of  the  roughs, 
and  the  Imperial  interpreter  had  reported  that  they  had 
been  called  "niggers,"  while  it  was  ascertained  that  an 
attempt  had  been  made  to  pull  one  of  their  number  out 

of  his  carriage A  drunken  fellow  carelessly  let  off 

a  pistol  while  conversing  with  a  Japanese,  who  was  so 
enraged  at  what  he  supposed  was  an  attempt  to  murder 
him  that  he  drew  his  sword  and  rushed  at  the  offender, 
who  would  have  been  undoubtedly  decapitated,  had  it  not 
been  for  the  bystanders.1 

Of  course  we  must  not  give  too  much  weight  to  the 
unrestrained  actions  of  an  American  crowd,  which  in 
its  treatment  of  foreigners  and  even  of  its  own  political 
heroes  has  often  gone  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  pro- 
priety. Without  doubt  the  fact  that  the  Japanese 
invariably  appeared  dressed  in  their  native  costume 
helped  to  magnify  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  their  for- 
eign peculiarities  and  further  stimulated  curiosity.2 

1  Harper's  Weekly,  June  23,  1860. 

2  Harper's  Weekly,  May  26,  1860,  describes  the  appearance  of 
the  Japanese  as  follows:    "The  hair  is  shaved  from  all  parts  of 
the  head  excepting  the  sides  and  back,  from  which  it  is  gathered 
in  long  bands  to  the  crown  and  there  fastened  with  a  white  string, 


Our  First  Acquaintance  n 

Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  the  mass  of  the  people 
failed  to  take  the  Japanese  seriously  and  persisted  in 
treating  them  with  the  condescending  familiarity 
bestowed  upon  children  rather  than  with  the  respect 
due  men  in  their  position  of  power  in  the  state.  After 
their  arrival  in  their  hotel  in  Baltimore  we  are  told 
that  — 

....  a  party  of  firemen  mounted  the  balcony  and  intro- 
duced themselves  to  the  Ambassadors.  At  last  one  of 
these  noble  fellows  gave  a  characteristic  and  playful  vent 
by  taking  off  his  heavy  and  dripping  fire-cap  and  clap- 
ping it  affectionately  on  the  head  of  the  Chief  Ambassa- 
dor. This  was  received  with  such  shouts  of  laughter  that 
two  other  facetious  firemen  dropped  their  caps  on  the 
heads  of  the  other  Ambassadors,  and  the  applause  was 
terrific.  The  Japanese  took  the  matter  with  great  philos- 
ophy, but  we  have  no  doubt  the  historian  of  the  party 

leaving  a  lock  three  or  four  inches  long,  which  is  stiffened  with 
oil  and  brought  forward  to  the  forehead  where  it  rests.  They 
wear  silk  or  crepe  undercoats  of  various  hues,  looser  robes  of  the 
same  material  and  mostly  blue  being  thrown  and  folded  over  them. 
In  their  belts  of  crepe  they  wear  two  swords,  one  short  and  the 
other  longer,  which  are  borne  in  neatly  wrought  scabbards  of 
thick  skin,  inlaid  with  ornaments  of  gold  and  jewels.  Their 
trousers  are  very  wide  and  short,  descending  only  to  within  five 
or  six  inches  of  the  ground,  and  are  made  of  silk  which  is  some- 
times covered  with  beautifully  embroidered  figures  of  buds  and 
flowers.  Upon  their  feet  are  white  cloth  coverings,  half  sock, 
half  gaiter,  closely  fitting  and  fastened  by  cords.  Their  sandals 
are  of  straw  and  are  composed  of  a  small  flat  matting  for  the 
foot,  and  two  cords  —  one  passing  over  the  instep,  the  other 
between  the  large  toe  and  its  neighbor  —  which  serve  to  keep  it 
in  place.  For  pockets  they  use  a  part  of  their  flowing  sleeves  and 
the  front  of  their  robes  above  their  belt,  the  customary  occupation 
of  which  by  goodly  sized  packages  gives  the  wearers  a  protuber- 
ance of  stomach  quite  unaccountable  at  first  sight." 


12  The  Japanese  Invasion 

will  make  his  own  comments  upon  these  practical  jokes 
when  he  submits  it  to  the  Tycoon.  In  the  evening  fire- 
works were  let  off,  and  the  persecuted  dignitaries  were 
left  to  their  repose.1 

There  was  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  Americans 
in  general  to  look  upon  the  Embassy  as  a  show 
intended  to  furnish  them  amusement.  Surprise  was 
manifested  when  the  Japanese  conducted  themselves 
with  dignity  as  men  of  culture.  It  was  plainly  evident 
that  they  were  regarded  as  men  on  a  lower  plane  of 
civilization  from  whom  not  much  could  be  expected. 
Thus  we  are  told  that  when  the  Japanese  sat  down  to 
their  first  dinner  at  Willard's  Hotel  in  Washington, 
"greatly  to  the  disappointment  of  all  who  were  on  the 
outlook  for  something  funny,  the  Japanese  took  wine 
and  used  knives  and  forks  like  any  other  well-bred 
people."  Also  on  the  occasion  of  their  first  interview 
with  President  Buchanan  the  reporter  writes : 

The  interview,  far  from  being  absurd  or  amusing,  as 
was  anticipated,  was  of  a  solemn  and  serious  character. 
Through  the  strange  differences  of  dress,  language,  and 
custom,  it  was  evident  that  the  Ambassadors  were  men 
of  high  character,  honor,  intelligence,  and  refinement, 
and  that  the  New  World  could  teach  them  no  lessons  in 
propriety  of  demeanor  or  in  a  due  sense  of  official  re- 
sponsibility.1 

The  following  account  of  the  Embassy's  visit  to 
Congress  shows  clearly  the  attitude  of  even  the  more 
intelligent  Americans  toward  the  Japanese : 

1  Leslie's  Illustrated  Newspaper,  June  23,  1860. 


Our  First  Acquaintance  13 

They  were  led  over  the  building  and  shown  the  splen- 
did ceiling,  but,  to  the  astonishment  of  those  introduced, 
they  manifested  much  more  interest  in  the  mode  of  con- 
ducting the  legislative  proceedings  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  show.  They  remained  but  a  short  time  and 
then  retired,  followed,  of  course,  by  a  loud  laugh  from 
the  representatives  and  by  a  wild  mob  rush  of  men  and 
women  from  the  galleries,  which  were  left  nearly  empty.1 

Another  instance  of  the  indignities  to  which  the 
Japanese  were  subjected  is  brought  out  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  their  inspection  of  the  United  States  Mint  at 
Philadelphia : 

It  is  worth  mentioning  that  the  female  employees  at 
the  Mint  behaved  in  a  modest  and  ladylike  manner, 
neither  pressing  up  close  to  the  Japanese  nor  clasping 
their  hands  nor  annoying  them  in  any  manner  whatever. 
It  is  said  that  this  was  almost  the  first  instance  since  the 
Japanese  have  been  in  this  country  when  the  princes  and 
suite  were  not  literally  annoyed  by  females  when  the 
latter  had  the  opportunity  to  do  so.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  in  justice  to  our  fair  countrywomen, 
that  those  who  have  thus  annoyed  them  have  been  prin- 
cipally of  the  brazen  and  ignorant  sort.2 

It  is  no  wonder  that  a  writer  in  Harper's  Weekly 
should  make  the  following  indignant  protest  against 
the  rudeness  of  the  American  public : 

There  are  undoubtedly  gentlemen  and  ladies  in  Amer- 
ica, but  what  a  pity  that  the  Japanese  will  never  know  it ! 
They  have  seen  some  probably  during  their  visit  here, 

1  Leslie's  Illustrated  Newspaper,  June  6,  1860. 

2  Ibid.,  June  23,  1860. 


14  The  Japanese  Invasion 

but  they  could  not  know  them  in  the  multitude.  They 
know  the  gentleman  who  smashed  his  hat  over  their  eyes 
in  Baltimore;  the  lady  who  filled  up  the  window  in  Phil- 
adelphia ;  the  shouting,  staring,  insulting  mob  which  has 

dogged  them  everywhere The  drollest  part  of  the 

whole  thing  is  that  we  speak  of  the  Japanese  as  if  they 
were  barbarians  and  savages.  But  we  have  yet  to  read 
of  the  moment  during  these  proceedings  in  which  the 
Japanese  gentlemen  have  not  been  quite  as  dignified, 
intelligent,  and  well  bred  as  any  gentlemen  in  any  country 
or  time.  The  barbarian  and  savage  behavior  has  been 
entirely  upon  our  part ;  and  it  is  a  fair  question  whether 
the  princes  will  not  return  with  a  profound  regret  that 
Japan  has  so  far  foregone  her  ancient  traditions  as  to 
open  her  ports  to  the  desolating  influx  of  western 
civilization.1 

It  thus  appears  that  our  first  experiences  with  the 
Japanese  resemble  somewhat  our  treatment  of  them  at 
the  present  day.  In  1860  as  well  as  in  these  opening 
years  of  the  twentieth  century  there  was  the  friendly 
attitude  of  our  national  government  endeavoring  in 
every  possible  way  to  promote  peace  and  good  will 
between  the  two  countries.  Then  as  now  shrewd 
business  men  were  quick  to  see  the  advantage  of  trade 
with  the  Orient  which  offered  such  a  wide  market  for 
American  goods.  There  were  people  in  those  days  as 
well  as  at  the  present  who  admired  the  culture  of  the 
Japanese  and  pointed  out  the  lessons  we  could  learn 
by  contact  with  the  Far  East.  In  the  attitude  of  the 
mass  of  the  people  we  notice  the  same  tendency  to  look 
upon  the  Japanese  in  a  condescending  way,  to  assign 

1  Harper's  Weekly,  June  23,  1860. 


Our  First  Acquaintance  15 

them  to  a  position  of  inferiority,  and  even  to  subject 
them  to  rude  insults. 

But  in  spite  of  all  these  points  of  similarity,  our 
attitude  toward  the  Japanese  has  undergone  a  vast 
change  within  recent  years.  An  undercurrent  of  sus- 
picion and  dislike  has  spread  over  America  and  has 
broken  out  in  certain  sections  in  expressions  of  open 
hostility.  The  development  of  Japan  into  a  world 
power,  our  contact  with  Japanese  immigrants  under 
the  stress  of  modern  labor  conditions,  are  among  the 
new  factors  in  the  situation  that  have  made  inevitable 
the  rise  of  our  American- Japanese  problem. 

It  is  very  evident  that  we  are  no  longer  dealing  with 
an  obscure  nation  getting  its  first  glimpse  of  the 
western  world.  The  Japanese  are  now  a  highly  organ- 
ized and  efficient  people  who  are  seeking  an  outlet  in 
the  West  for  their  surplus  population.  The  over- 
crowded East  is  making  its  first  advance  upon  the  more 
sparsely  settled  West.  Hitherto  the  Japanese  have 
come  as  suppliants  asking  to  share  the  opportunities 
we  enjoy.  Whether  they  will  later  follow  Commodore 
Perry's  example  and  back  up  their  demands  with  a  fleet 
of  battleships  it  is  impossible  to  predict.  The  situation, 
however,  is  serious  enough  to  warrant  the  consideration 
of  those  interested  in  promoting  more  cordial  relations 
between  the  peoples  of  the  East  and  of  the  West. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   JAPANESE   ATTITUDE   TOWARD  THE   WEST 

'TpHE  first  Westerners  to  arrive  in  Japan  were  a 
-*•  party  of  Portuguese  who  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century  were  forced  by  a  storm  to  take  shelter 
in  a  Japanese  port.  These  foreign  sailors  were  received 
with  great  kindness  by  the  Japanese  and  were  sent  on 
their  way  with  the  assurance  that  trade  between  the 
two  countries  would  be  welcomed.  In  a  few  years 
Portuguese  ships  bringing  merchandise  and  mission- 
aries came  to  Japan  and  inaugurated  an  era  of  friendly 
intercourse  mutually  satisfactory  to  both  nations.  The 
open-minded,  liberal  attitude  of  the  Japanese  at  that 
time  is  evidenced  both  by  their  ready  response  to  the 
teachings  of  Christian  missionaries  and  by  their  deter- 
mined efforts  to  share  in  the  advantages  of  foreign 
trade.  In  their  first  contact  with  the  western  world 
the  Japanese  gave  no  signs  of  the  existence  of  an 
unreasoning  race  prejudice.  Writes  Captain  Brinkley : 

In  1541,  we  find  the  Japanese  celebrated,  or  notorious, 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Far  East  for  exploits  abroad  ; 
we  find  them  known  as  "  Kings  of  the  Sea  " ;  we  find 
them  welcoming  foreigners  with  cordiality  and  opposing 
no  obstacles  to  foreign  commerce  or  even  to  the  propa- 
gandism  of  foreign  creeds ;  we  find  them  so  quick  to 
recognize  the  benefits  of  trade  and  so  apt  to  pursue  them, 
that  in  the  space  of  a  few  years  they  established  com- 

16 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  17 

mercial  relations  with  no  less  than  twenty  oversea  mar- 
kets ;  we  find  them  authorizing  the  Portuguese  and  the 
English  to  trade  at  every  port  in  the  Empire;  we  find, 
in  short,  all  the  elements  requisite  for  a  career  of  com- 
mercial enterprise,  ocean-going  adventure,  and  inter- 
national liberality.1 

After  almost  a  century  of  this  foreign  intercourse, 
the  tide  of  national  sentiment  turned  and  a  revolution- 
ary change  was  made  in  Japan's  foreign  policy.  Every 
Westerner  was  expelled  from  the  country.  No  Japa- 
nese was  permitted  to  go  abroad  upon  pain  of  death. 
Ships  large  enough  for  ocean  voyages  could  no  longer 
be  constructed.  The  government,  in  its  efforts  to 
uproot  every  trace  of  the  Christian  religion  that  had 
spread  so  rapidly  among  the  people,  entered  upon  an 
era  of  severe  persecution  equaled  only  by  the  horrors 
of  the  Spanish  Inquisition.  An  edict  promulgated  at 
that  time  said : 

So  long  as  the  sun  warms  the  earth,  let  no  Christian 
be  so  bold  as  to  come  to  Japan ;  and  let  all  know  that  if 
the  King  of  Spain,  or  the  Christian's  God,  or  the  Great 
God  of  all  violate  this  command,  he  shall  pay  for  it  with 
his  head.2 

Through  the  enforcement  of  the  most  rigid  laws, 
foreign  influence  was  driven  out  of  the  country,  and 
Japan  followed  the  policy  of  strict  seclusion  for  more 
than  two  hundred  years. 

1  Brinkley,  R,  Japan,  Its  History,  Arts,  and  Literature,  vol.  3, 
p.  129. 

2  Gary,   Otis,  History   of  Christianity  in  Japan,  F.  H.  Revell 

Company,  vol.  I,  p.  231. 


i8  The  Japanese  Invasion 

The  reasons  for  this  revulsion  of  feeling  are  not 
hard  to  find.  The  Japanese  could  not  long  be  blind  to 
the  fact  that  the  Europeans  of  that  day,  whether  mer- 
chants or  missionaries,  were  by  no  means  mere  pro- 
moters of  western  civilization  and  culture.1  There 
grew  in  their  minds  the  suspicion  that  even  the  propa- 
gation of  Christianity  was  being  used  as  a  cloak  to  hide 
the  political  designs  of  the  foreigners.  They  believed 
that  their  country  was  endangered  by  the  presence  of 
foes  masquerading  as  friends.  Their  only  safety,  they 
felt,  lay  in  taking  stern  measures  before  the  foreigners 
had  secured  a  firm  foothold  in  their  country. 

1 "  It  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  after  the  discovery  of 
India  by  Da  Gama  in  1498,  the  eastern  trade  was  always  main- 
tained as  a  royal  monopoly,  and  that  the  early  Portuguese  dis- 
coverers were  not,  as  were  the  English  afterwards,  mere  traders 
or  private  adventurers,  but  admirals  with  a  royal  commission  to 
conquer  territory  and  to  promote  the  spread  of  what  was  called 
Christianity.  So  much  appears  for  example  in  the  case  of  Calral, 
who  was  in  command  of  the  fleet  of  thirteen  sail  that  left  the 
Tagus  for  India  in  1500.  The  sum  of  his  instructions  was  to  begin 
with  preaching,  and  if  that  failed,  to  proceed  to  the  sharp  de- 
termination of  the  sword.  As  for  Da  Gama  and  his  method  of 
propagating  'the  true  religion/  in  spite  of  his  well-deserved  and 
undying  fame  as  a  discoverer,  his  career  is  a  record  of  brutal 
atrocities  that  make  one  blush  for  civilization,  for  religion,  and 

for  humanity  alike These  pious  ruffians  seem  to  have  been 

thoroughly  convinced  that  it  was  not  only  their  right,  but  their 
duty,  to  conquer  and  convert  the  heathen  by  any  and  every  means 
whatsoever.  Possibly  when  the  keen-witted  Japanese  came  to 
grasp  the  import  of  this  fact  —  as  there  are  grounds  to  believe 
they  did,  in  the  early  seventeenth  century  —  their  expulsion  of 
the  foreign  missionaries  and  their  stern  and  ruthless  suppression 
of  Christianity  in  the  country  became  merely  matters  of  course." 
A  History  of  Japan  During  Century  of  Early  Foreign  Intercourse, 
P.  45  ff.  " 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  19 

From  this  time  dates  the  beginning  of  Japanese 
prejudice  against  the  West,  a  prejudice  so  deep-seated 
that  it  caused  Japan  to  drop  out  of  touch  with  the 
progress  of  the  world  and  to  become  almost  hopelessly 
outdistanced  in  the  race  of  material  civilization.  What 
little  knowledge  of  the  western  world  filtered  into 
Japan  during  its  two  centuries  of  seclusion  came  largely 
through  Dutch  traders  who,  by  accepting  humiliating 
restrictions,  carried  on  a  little  trade  at  the  port  of 
Nagasaki.  Some  Dutch  books  were  secured  by  the 
Japanese  and  translated,  but  so  violent  was  the  preju- 
dice against  things  western  that  this  new  learning  could 
not  be  widely  disseminated.1 

It  is  easy  to  understand,  therefore,  why  so  much 
suspicion  and  fear  were  aroused  by  Commodore  Perry's 
visit  to  Japan  in  1853,  when  he  demanded  that  the 
country  be  opened  to  foreign  intercourse.  If  his 
demand  had  not  been  backed  up  by  the  presence  of 
American  battleships,  the  Japanese  would  doubtless 
have  given  it  scant  consideration.  Their  laws  against 
foreign  trade  were  still  in  full  force  and  there  was  no 
disposition  on  their  part  to  violate  the  traditions  of  the 
past.  It  was  only  their  inability  to  cope  with  the  situ- 
ation that  caused  them  to  consent  to  open  their  country. 
The  Japanese,  who  were  then  as  now  past  masters  in 
the  art  of  courtesy,  did  not  allow  their  feelings  of 
chagrin  to  affect  their  treatment  of  the  foreigners.  No 
unpleasant  incidents  occurred  to  mar  the  first  visit  of 

1  Kikuchi,  Baron,  "  Introduction  of  Western  Learning  into 
Japan,"  Japan  Advertiser,  Mar.  4-5,  1915. 


2O  The  Japanese  Invasion 

the  Americans  to  Japan.  Even  the  common  people 
showed  a  friendliness  and  civility  hardly  to  be  expected 
under  the  circumstances.1  A  contemporary  account 
of  Perry's  expedition  to  Japan  states  that- 

....  throughout  these  negotiations  the  Japanese  showed 
none  of  the  captiousness  and  arrogance  usually  attributed 
to  them,  but  as  much  forbearance  and  courtesy  with  the 
strangers  as  the  most  graceful  European  diplomatists 
exhibit  toward  each  other.2 

During  the  years  immediately  following  the  opening 
of  Japan,  many  of  the  Japanese  leaders  as  well  as  a 
large  portion  of  the  common  people  seemed  favorably 
disposed  toward  the  foreigners.  The  hostile  attitude 
was  confined  very  largely  to  the  samurai,  the  armed 
retainers  of  the  daimios,  who  as  the  protectors  of  their 
nation  felt  it  their  duty  to  rid  the  country  of  the 
western  invaders.  This  proud  military  class,  accus- 
tomed to  receive  the  homage  of  all  whom  they  met, 
bitterly  resented  the  humiliating  way  in  which  their 
nation  had  been  compelled  to  bow  to  the  foreign 
demands.  The  samurai  were  acquainted  with  the  his- 
tory of  their  past  and  knew  the  sad  results  that  had 

1  In  the  Journal  of  Dr.  Williams,  the  interpreter  of  the  Perry 
expedition,  we  find  the  following  testimony  to  the  friendliness  of 
the  people :    "  The  surveying  boats  have  had  considerable  friendly 
intercourse  with  the  people  along  the  beach  and  in  boats  today 
and  on  Saturday,  and  ere  long  there  seems  likely  to  spring  up  a 
pleasant  understanding.    The  people  are  evidently  willing  to  cul- 
tivate kindly  feelings  with  their  visitors."    Trans.  Asiatic  Soc.  of 
Japan,  vol.  37,  part  2,  p.  108. 

2  "  Japan  Entering  the  Commercial  World,"  the  Living  Age,  voL 
42,  1854,  p.  189. 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  21 

followed  the  first  foreign  invasion  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  They  must  have  been  at  least  dimly  aware 
that  the  coming  of  the  Westerner  heralded  a  new  era 
which  would  mark  the  downfall  of  their  prestige  and 
power.  In  their  eyes  the  foreigner  was  a  dangerous 
intruder  who  must  be  expelled  at  all  costs.  On  the  body 
of  a  Japanese  killed  in  an  attack  on  the  British  legation 
at  that  time  was  found  a  paper  which  contained  these 
words:  "I,  though  I  am  a  person  of  low  standing, 
have  no  patience  to  stand  by  and  see  the  sacred  empire 
defiled  by  the  foreigners/' *  These  zealous  patriots 
not  only  tried  to  drive  out  the  foreigners,  but  also 
directed  their  assaults  against  the  Japanese  ministers 
of  state  who  were  using  their  influence  to  promote 
closer  relations  with  the  West.  Some  of  the  best  Japa- 
nese leaders  of  that  day  gave  up  their  lives  in  their 
attempt  to  lead  their  nation  away  from  its  old  policy 
of  seclusion.  Over  the  head  of  one  of  these  victims 
was  placed  this  inscription:  "This  is  the  head  of  a 
traitor  who  has  violated  the  most  sacred  laws  of  Japan 
—  those  which  forbid  the  admission  of  foreigners  into 
the  country."  l 

This  anti-foreign  feeling  was  still  further  aggravated 
by  the  treaties  which  Japan  was  practically  compelled 
to  make  with  western  powers.  In  the  treaties  of  1854 
and  1858  between  Japan  and  America,  the  Japanese 
government  granted  the  right  of  extra-territoriality 
and  agreed  to  impose  only  a  fixed  minimum  tariff  rate, 

1  Macgowan,  "  Japanese  Foreign  Relations,"  the  Continental 
Monthly,  vol.  4,  1863,  p.  338. 


22 The  Japanese  Invasion 

thus  surrendering  two  fundamental  privileges  of  an 
independent  nation  —  the  right  of  jurisdiction  over  all 
the  people  in  its  territory,  and  the  right  to  protect  its 
own  industries  against  foreign  competition.  The  intel- 
ligent Japanese  who  were  aware  of  the  nature  of  these 
treaties  felt  keenly  this  humiliation.  Filled  with  patri- 
otic enthusiasm  for  the  welfare  of  their  country  it  was 
natural  that  they  should  take  up  the  cry  of  Joi  ("  expel 
the  barbarians  "),  and  put  forth  every  effort  to  accom- 
plish their  purpose. 

Moreover,  the  haughty,  insolent  attitude  of  some  of 
the  foreigners  in  Japan  played  no  small  part  in  increas- 
ing their  unpopularity  among  the  people.  In  1863  a 
writer  well  acquainted  with  actual  conditions  criticized 
in  the  following  frank  manner  the  conduct  of  foreigners 
residing  in  that  country  : 

While  for  good  political  reasons  some  daintios  have 
endeavored  to  render  the  treaties  inoperative  and  to 
frighten  foreigners  out  of  the  land,  there  has  been  spring- 
ing up  among  the  people  a  strong  antipathy  toward  them 
for  which  they  have  themselves  alone  to  blame.  Who 
that  read  the  glowing  accounts  of  the  reception  at  first  ac- 
corded to  our  people,  did  not  admire  the  suavity  and 
hospitality  of  the  Japanese?  This  friendly  intercourse 
lasted  only  until  the  parties  came  to  understand  each 
other.  Now,  we  are  told,  when  a  western  man  passes 
through  the  streets,  he  is  hooted  at  as  Tojin  baka  ("a 
foreign  fool") 

The  practical  joking  in  which  many  foreigners  are  apt 
to  indulge  is  often  carried  too  far,  and  being  accom- 
panied by  an  arrogant  demeanor  of  superiority,  proves 
highly  offensive.  Again,  we  find  the  Tojin  baka  often 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  23 

fail  to  discriminate  between  different  classes  of  females. 
Discovering  that  the  Japanese  were  lewd  beyond  all  other 
peoples,  with  institutions  fostering  vice,  without  even 
the  flimsy  pretext  of  hygienic  considerations,  they  take 
liberties  which  rouse  the  vindictive  rage  of  husbands. 
....  In  the  use  of  firearms  the  prejudices  of  the  natives 
have  been  needlessly  offended.  Shooting  game  is  not 
generally  allowed  to  the  people,  yet  foreigners  have  been 
reckless  in  the  pursuit  of  sport,  regardless  where  they 
sought  it,  and  terrifying  the  people.  Again,  riding  on 
horseback  is  allowed  only  to  nobles,  and  it  is  a  source  of 
provocation  to  all  classes  to  witness  the  equestrian  per- 
formances of  foreigners  of  every  station  in  life,  whose 
amusement  at  times  consists  in  making  pedestrians  scatter 
as  they  gallop  through  the  crowded  streets.1 

In  all  the  dealings  of  Westerners  with  the  Japanese 
during  the  first  years  of  the  Meiji  era,  there  was  this 
assumption  of  superiority,  a  tendency  to  treat  Japan 
in  a  condescending  and  patronizing  way  which  was 
very  galling  to  the  proud  and  sensitive  Japanese  people. 
The  more  hot-blooded  among  them  came  out  boldly 
and  demanded  that  the  matter  should  be  settled  by  an 
appeal  to  the  sword.    The  leaders  of  the  nation,  how- 
ever, advocated  a  different  policy.    Realizing  the  weak- 
ness of  their  nation,  they  hid  their  bitterness  beneath 
a  cloak  of  deferential  politeness,  and  set  about  the  task 
of  building  up  an  empire  that  could  demand  respect 
and  defend  itself  against  foreign  aggression.     With 
them  it  was  not  merely  a  question  of  avenging  insults, 
but  of  preserving  the  independence  of  their  nation. 
The  arrogant  foreigners  who  had  so  little  regard  for 
1  The  Continental  Monthly,  vol.  4,  ^3i  P-  339- 


24  The  Japanese  Invasion 

their  customs  and  institutions  might  at  any  moment 
attempt  to  exploit  their  nation  as  they  were  already 
exploiting  China.  Their  safety  lay  only  in  strength. 
Medieval  means  of  defense  were  inadequate  to  cope 
with  the  situation.  The  more  efficient  western  methods 
must  be  adopted  if  they  were  to  succeed  in  their  forced 
competition  with  the  western  world.  "We  will  learn 
all  you  can  teach  and  then  —  we  will  fight  you"  was 
the  frank  statement  of  many  Japanese  patriots  of  that 
day.1 

Later,  when  the  Japanese  government   was  more 
strongly  established  and  the  people  had  gained  a  wider 

1  De  Forest,  J.  H.,  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom,  p.  24. 

The  feelings  of  the  Oriental  in  the  presence  of  western  aggres* 
sion  have  been  interpreted  as  follows  by  Dr.  Gulick :  "  The 
aggressive,  domineering  white  man  has  recently  begun  to  overrun 
the  earth;  he  has  destroyed  many  peoples,  overthrown  their 
governments,  seized  their  lands,  and  murdered  countless  millions. 
He  regards  neither  right  nor  heaven.  Might  alone  is  his  god.  We 
have  never  interfered  with  him,  but  here  he  is  all  around  us 
holding  his  conquered  lands  with  a  mighty  grip,  demanding  trade 
and  an  open  door,  and  so-called  rights  in  our  part  of  the  world. 
His  uncouth  ways,  his  materialistic  civilization,  and  his  strange 
beliefs  are  dangerous  to  our  ancient  and  noble  life.  It  is  true 
that  at  present  we  are  weaker  than- he,  for  we  have  never  believed 
in  fighting.  For  war  is  neither  the  rational  nor  the  right  way  to 
settle  difficulties.  But  since  that  is  his  way  and  the  only  way  he 
understands,  we  will  learn  his  secrets;  master  his  methods;  re- 
organize our  government;  establish  army  and  navy;  and  intro- 
duce the  instruments  of  western  civilization,  adding  all  its  good 
points  to  ours;  thus  shall  we  be  able  to  resist  his  aggressions, 
maintain  our  independence,  and  take  our  rightful  dominant  place 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  For  we  are  inherently  sup 
to  the  white  man,  not  only  in  economic  efficiency,  but  in  brain 
power,  general  culture,  and  moral  character." — Gulick,  S.  L.,  The 
American  Japanese  Problem,  pp.  7-8. 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  25 

knowledge  of  the  West,  this  attitude  of  hostility  was 
pushed  into  the  background.  Fear  of  western  aggres- 
sion was  superseded  by  a  strong  desire  to  win  western 
recognition.  The  achievements  of  the  West  convinced 
them  of  the  real  backwardness  of  their  nation.  Says 
Kawakami : 

Like  a  docile  pupil  the  Japanese  frankly  admitted  and 
recognized  the  superiority  of  not  only  western  civiliza- 
tion, but  also  the  western  race.  When  I  was  in  school 
in  Japan  as  a  small  boy,  my  textbooks  taught  me  that 
"  the  people  of  the  Occident  are  exceeding  industrious, 
always  rising  early  in  the  morning,  and  never  taking  a 
noonday  nap."  They  told  me  that  the  Westerners  were 
"our  superiors  physically,  mentally,  and  morally."  It 
was  not  only  the  school  children  but  their  teachers  and 
parents  who  believed  such  sweeping  statements  with 
unquestioning  simplicity.1 

The  Japanese  were  painfully  aware  that  they  were 
outside  the  circle  of  social  and  political  equality,  a  fact 
to  which  their  treaties  with  western  nations  bore 
constant  witness.  Their  great  ambition  was  to  escape 
from  this  humiliating  position  by  securing  as  soon  as 
possible  a  revision  of  these  treaties.  To  this  end  de- 
liberate attempts  were  made  to  gain  foreign  favor  by 
adopting  the  civilization  of  the  West.  The  strongly 
centralized  government  under  the  control  of  able  and 
progressive  leaders  reconstructed  as  far  as  possible 
their  old  institutions  along  western  lines.  Efforts  were 
made  to  conform  to  western  social  standards.  Counts 

1  Kawakami,  K.  K.,  Asia  at  the  Door,  p.  47. 


26  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Inouye  and  Ito  attempted  to  Europeanize  high  society 
in  the  Japanese  capital.  Court  ladies  ordered  gowns 
from  Paris  and  learned  to  waltz  in  western  style.  A 
suitable  foreign  building  was  erected  in  Tokyo  where 
expensive  balls  were  given  to  members  of  the  diplo- 
matic corps.  At  these  functions  Japanese  ladies  of 
high  rank  put  aside  their  traditional  ideas  of  modesty 
and  retirement  and  associated  with  men  on  terms  of 
equality.1  These  innovations  made  by  the  leaders  of 
the  government  set  the  fashion  for  the  people.  West- 
ern ideas  and  customs  were  adopted  bodily,  regardless 
of  their  utility  under  oriental  conditions.  Leading 
men  in  Japan  urged  that  Christianity  be  accepted 
merely  as  a  matter  of  good  policy,  and  it  was  even 
proposed  that  the  Emperor  receive  the  rite  of  Christian 
baptism.2  To  such  an  extent  did  the  craze  for  things 
foreign  prevail  during  the  period  of  western  popularity 
in  the  eighties  that  many  thought  the  Japanese  nation 
would  be  occidentalized  in  the  course  of  a  very  few 
years. 

Having  thus  conformed  in  such  large  measure  to 
western  standards,  the  Japanese  felt  that  they  had  a 
right  to  new  treaties  that  would  admit  them  into  the 
circle  of  civilized  nations.  All  the  resources  of  diplo- 
macy were  called  into  requisition  in  their  endeavor 
to  convince  the  powers  that  further  discriminatory 
treatment  was  an  act  of  injustice. 

1  Atkinson,  J.  L.,  "  Treaty  Relations  of  Japan  with  America," 
Our  Day,  Sept.,  1892,  p.  277. 

2  Clement,  E.  W.,  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,  p.  24. 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  27 

When  all  their  efforts  ended  in  failure,  there  spread 
over  Japan  a  wave  of  indignant  protest  that  carried 
with  it  a  reaction  against  things  western.  Native  cus- 
toms came  back  into  favor  and  the  cry  of  Japan  for  the 
Japanese  was  raised.  Oriental  reserve  no  longer  con- 
cealed their  ant i- foreign  feelings  which  had  been 
repressed  for  a  number  of  years.  Hundreds  of 
Christian  converts  shook  off  their  allegiance  to  the 
foreign  religion  and  drifted  back  into  their  former 
mode  of  life.  Enthusiastic  missionaries  who  had  pre- 
dicted the  speedy  christianization  of  Japan  found  them- 
selves doomed  to  disappointment.  The  mad  rush  to  ape 
foreign  custom  ceased  and  in  its  stead  a  more  conserva- 
tive spirit  prevailed.  Japan's  victory  over  China  in 
1895  greatly  strengthened  the  national  consciousness 
of  the  Japanese,  and  gave  them  the  prestige  and  con- 
fidence they  needed  to  deal  more  aggressively  with  the 
West.  Their  renewed  demands  for  treaty  revision 
could  no  longer  be  denied  and  in  1899  there  went  into 
effect  new  treaties  that  granted  Japan  equal  rights  and 
privileges  in  her  international  relations. 

This  tardy  recognition  of  Japan  removed  one  source 
of  friction  with  the  West,  but  the  long-drawn-out 
struggle  had  left  feelings  of  bitterness  that  could  not 
easily  be  forgotten.  Moreover,  the  West  still  main- 
tained its  assumption  of  superiority  and  in  various 
ways  made  clear  to  the  Japanese  that  they  were 
regarded  as  a  people  on  a  lower  plane  of  civilization. 
Because  of  the  wide  difference  between  the  standards 
of  living  in  Japan  and  in  the  West,  such  an  attitude 


28  The  Japanese  Invasion 

on  the  part  of  the  foreigners  residing  in  Japan  was 
almost  inevitable.  Even  the  foreign  missionary  lived 
in  a  house  much  larger  than  the  average  Japanese  could 
afford  and  received  a  salary  five  times  the  amount  that 
was  granted  to  the  native  pastor.  Foreigners  employed 
by  the  government  in  any  capacity  had  to  be  paid  a 
much  larger  salary  than  Japanese  in  similar  positions. 
Indeed,  in  almost  all  the  relations  between  foreigners 
and  Japanese,  the  fact  that  one  was  on  a  higher  level 
than  the  other  was  unavoidably  apparent.  As  far  as 
the  external  possession  of  political  rights  was  con- 
cerned, the  Japanese  had  gained  their  point,  but  it  was 
continually  forced  upon  their  attention  that  they  were 
as  far  as  ever  from  being  admitted  into  the  inner  circle 
of  western  society.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was 
inevitable  not  only  that  their  old  feelings  of  dislike  of 
foreigners  should  be  perpetuated,  but  that  with  the 
growth  of  national  power  they  should  become  more 
openly  a  characteristic  of  the  Japanese  nation. 

Professor  Ladd  in  an  article  published  in  1895  made 
the  following  clear  statement  of  the  way  the  foreigner 
was  looked  upon  in  Japan  : 

The  real  and  predominating  attitude  of  the  popular 
mind  toward  the  "  foreigner  "  is  still  the  same  unreason- 
ing sentiment  that  it  has  ever  been.  A  few  and  only  a 
few,  even  of  the  educated  Japanese,  have  any  intelligent 
and  sympathetic  knowledge  of  that  type  of  mental  life 
which  has  been  developed  by  a  western  and  Christian 
civilization.  Among  the  people  of  all  classes,  unin- 
formed, unreasoning  feeling  towards  all  foreigners  still 
underlies  the  crust  of  enforced  or  selfish  and  conven- 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  29 

tional  politeness.  This  sentiment  is  a  mixture  of  sur- 
prise and  admiration  with  repulsion  and  contempt.  A 
well-principled  or  even  a  cosmopolitan  feeling  toward  all 
humankind,  an  "enthusiasm  of  humanity,"  is  a  rare 
and  difficult  thing  to  find  in  Japan.  What  but  the  knowl- 
edge of  this  mental  attitude  of  his  countrymen  could 
have  influenced  an  intelligent  native  preacher  to  say  in 
extremest  praise  of  the  power  of  divine  grace :  "  It  can 
make  you  love  even  a  foreigner." l 

Ten  years  later  Dr.  Gulick  wrote  even  more  strongly 
concerning  the  Japanese  feeling  of  antipathy  for  men 
of  a  foreign  race : 

Few  foreigners  have  received  a  hearty  welcome  from 
the  people  at  large.  They  are  suspected  and  hated;  as 
little  room  as  possible  is  made  for  them.  The  less  of 
their  presence  and  advice  the  better.  So  far  as  there  is 
any  interest  in  them,  it  is  on  the  ground  of  utility,  and 
not  of  inherent  good  will  because  of  a  feeling  of  ab- 
original unity.  Of  course  there  are  many  exceptions  to 
these  statements,  especially  among  the  Christians.  But 
such  is  the  attitude  of  the  people  as  a  whole,  especially 
of  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  toward  the  foreigners.2 

That  these  statements  are  even  today  not  wide  of 
the  mark  can  be  verified  by  anyone  who  has  an  inti- 
mate knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  Japanese  people. 
The  passing  visitor  may  see  nothing  of  this  anti- 
foreign  prejudice,  for  the  well-bred  Japanese  usually 
conceals  his  feelings  under  an  impassive  mask  and 
plays  the  part  of  host  to  foreign  guests  with  a  suavity 

1  Ladd,  G.  T.,  "  Mental  Characteristics  of  the  Japanese,"  Scrib- 
ner's  Magazine,  17 :  85. 

2  Gulick,  S.  L.,  Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  p.  365. 


30  The  Japanese  Invasion 

of  manner  that  conveys  the  impression  of  sincerity. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  to  some  of  Japan's  distin- 
guished visitors  that  we  owe  many  of  our  misconcep- 
tions of  the  attitude  and  feelings  of  the  Japanese 
nation.  After  being  feted  and  dined  and  shown  every 
possible  courtesy,  they  either  become  too  bewildered 
to  see  beneath  the  surface  or  they  feel  under  obligation 
to  make  some  return  for  the  compliments  showered 
upon  them.  At  any  rate  the  highly  colored  views  they 
make  public  after  their  return  from  the  East  frequently 
give  us  an  inaccurate  picture  of  real  conditions. 

Within  recent  years  many  Japanese  have  been  quite 
candid  in  expressing  their  attitude  toward  the  western 
world,  as  is  evidenced  by  their  published  articles  in- 
tended for  foreign  readers.  Yone  Noguchi,  a  Japanese 
journalist,  after  his  return  to  Japan  from  his  trip 
abroad  in  1914,  sent  to  the  Nation  a  letter  in  which 
he  expressed  with  surprising  frankness  his  opinion 
of  western  culture.  In  the  course  of  this  communica- 
tion occur  these  words : 

What  does  the  present  European  war  mean  to  us  Ori- 
entals? It  means  the  saddest  downfall  of  the  so-called 
western  civilization;  our  belief  that  it  was  builded  on 
a  higher  and  sounder  footing  than  ours  was  at  once 
knocked  down  and  killed;  we  are  sorry  that  we  some- 
how overestimated  its  happy  possibility  and  were  de- 
ceived and  cheated  by  its  superficial  glory.  We  now  see 
that  it  was  merely  a  mirage  or  optical  illusion  of  a  thing 
which  in  its  truest  sense  never  existed;  it  was  simply 
a  changed  form  or  crafty  masquerading  of  an  avaricious 
instinct  of  primitive  barbarism.  The  western  people 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  31 

with  all  sorts  of  colleges  and  institutions  in  their  most 
advanced  order  are  after  all  like  their  naked  friends  in 

far-away  Asia  or  Africa We  Orientals  will  insist 

in  future  not  to  believe  whatever  high  philosophy  on  love 
or  peace  or  humanity  the  western  scholars  and  theologians 

might  write I  have.been  losing  for  some  long  time 

my  own  respect  towards  the  West  and  her  own  civiliza- 
tion  Having  much  dissatisfaction  with  the  western 

life,  I  returned  to  a  country  whose  immediate,  most  im- 
portant determination  should  be  a  refusal  to  the  western 
invasion.1 

Not  the  least  significant  aspect  of  the  foregoing 
statement  is  the  attitude  of  mind  which  prompted  the 
writer  to  go  out  of  his  way  to  inform  the  Westerners 
of  his  opinion  of  them.  An  occasion  had  arisen  when 
it  was  possible  for  the  Japanese  to  assume  an  attitude 
of  superiority  and  point  out  an  apparent  failure  of 
western  civilization.  The  expression  of  his  views 
through  the  medium  of  the  Japanese  press  was  not 
sufficient  for  his  purpose.  His  mind  could  only  be 
relieved  by  sending  back  to  the  countries  he  had  just 
visited  his  repudiation  of  their  institutions. 

While  Noguchi's  statement  may  be  considerably  dis- 
counted because  of  his  well-known  propensity  for 
radical  opinions  along  various  lines,  similar  anti- 
foreign  articles  have  been  published  by  the  Japanese 
newspaper  press  with  such  frequency  during  the  last 
few  years  that  they  can  hardly  be  regarded  merely  as 
the  rabid  utterances  of  sensation-mongers.  To  a  far 

1Noguchi,  Y.,  "The  Downfall  of  Western  Civilization,"  the 
Nation,  Oct.  8,  1914,  p.  432. 


32  The  Japanese  Invasion 

greater  extent  than  is  usually  realized,  they  represent 
the  development  of  a  public  opinion  that  openly  ex- 
presses itself,  regardless  of  what  may  be  the  official 
attitude  of  the  government.  When  delicate  situations 
have  arisen  with  foreign  nations,  the  calm,  dispassion- 
ate statements  of  official  Japan  have  frequently  been 
contradicted  by  chauvinistic  sentiments  published  by 
certain  newspapers,  which  are  widely  quoted  abroad. 
Japanese  leaders  try  to  counteract  the  influence  of  these 
ant i:  foreign  utterances  by  stating  that  they  are  merely 
emanations  from  an  irresponsible  jingo  press.  The 
truth  is,  however,  that  they  do  represent  the  feelings 
of  a  portion  of  the  Japanese  people  and  that  they 
exercise  no  little  influence  on  the  molding  of  public 
opinion  throughout  the  nation. 

The  Japanese  newspapers  have,  in  general,  a  marked 
tendency  to  be  sensational  and  to  indulge  in  frank 
statements  quite  at  variance  with  oriental  reserve. 
The  third  page  of  the  average  Japanese  newspaper 
in  its  reports  of  scandals  and  unsavory  gossip  puts  to 
shame  even  the  yellowest  of  American  journals.  It 
may  be  that  the  newspaper  is  too  new  an  institution 
in  Japan  to  be  subject  to  their  ancient  code,  and  so  is 
regarded  as  a  legitimate  safety  valve  for  their  pent- 
up  emotions.  At  any  rate  the  frank  editorial  expres- 
sions directed  against  the  actions  of  foreign  powers, 
their  threats  of  war  because  of  real  or  fancied  insults 
from  abroad,  and  their  sharp  criticism  of  the  govern- 
ment when  it  shows  any  signs  of  weakness  in  its 
foreign  policy  possess  a  real  significance  for  those 


Attitude  Toward  the  West  33 

who  wish  to  understand  the  attitude  of  the  Japanese 
nation  and  make  it  a  fair  assumption  that  the  old 
anti-foreign  sentiment  still  exists  in  spite  of  all  official 
assurance  of  friendliness  for  the  West. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   CLOSING   OF   THE   OPEN   DOOR 

'"pHE    following    striking    statement    by    Yamato 
A     Ichihashi  gives  one  reason  for  our  changed  atti- 
tude toward  Japan,  and  contains  more  than  one  element 
of  truth: 

There  existed,  and  still  does  exist,  a  group  of  men 
and  women  in  America  who  liked  or  like  Japan  because 
Japan  was  or  is  so  fundamentally  different  from  all 
other  countries  of  the  world.  To  these  people  charm 
and  strangeness  are  inseparable  qualities  in  Japan.  The 
Mt.  Fuji  is  charming,  but  only  because  she  is  strangely 
unique  among  the  mountains  of  the  world.  Nikko  is 
charming,  but  because  there  nature  and  art  are  brought 
into  harmony  strangely  unrealized  in  the  West 

But  more  strange  is  the  author  of  these  strange  and, 
therefore,  charming  arts.  He  is  so  unwestern,  therefore 
so  unhuman,  that  is  to  say,  beyond  the  comprehension 
of  western  minds.  Nevertheless  he  is  charming  because 
he  is  strange ;  indeed  every  act  of  his  is  strange  and  his 
surrounding  is  fantastic.  The  blacksmith  squats  at  his 
anvil.  The  carpenter  pulls  his  plane  and  saw.  The  Jap- 
anese speak  backwards,  read  backwards,  and  write  back- 
wards. Surely  they  are  a  strange  folk.  And  this  was  or  is 
the  world  of  unreality  in  which  Lafcadio  Hearn  and  his 
curio  friends  refused  or  refuse  to  face  reality.  The  vision 
was  so  enchanting.  The  Westerner  thus  sought  in  Japan, 
as  did  the  Chinese  in  legendary  days,  to  enjoy  a  life  no- 
where else  to  be  enjoyed.  Of  course  they  liked  this  Japan. 

But  to  their  utter  astonishment,  not  to  say  their  dis- 

34 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  35 

appointment,  these  strange,  unhuman  Japanese  gradually 
took  on  human  shape  and  the  still  worse  human  mind. 
They  began  to  learn  to  speak,  to  read,  and  to  write  d  la 
Occident,  if  necessary.  The  blacksmith  squats  or  stands, 
as  the  occasion  demands.  The  carpenter  pulls  or  pushes, 
according  to  the  kind  of  tool  he  uses.  The  art  of  gar- 
dening is  not  forgot.  Curios  are  still  produced,  not  so 
much  now  by  mysterious  hands,  but  by  horrible  western 
machinery,  the  very  destroyer  of  art.  So  in  addition  to 
netsuke,  medicine  chests,  and  thousands  of  other  "little 
grand  "  things,  even  much-despised  dreadnaughts,  float- 
ing toys  of  civilized  men,  are  being  manufactured  by  the 
once  unhuman,  incomprehensible  Japanese.  The  speed  of 
telegraphy  is  now  valued  in  Japan  as  in  the  West.  Sedan 
chairs  disappeared,  but  railroads  traverse  the  Empire 
from  end  to  end.  Picturesque  native  junks  are  no  more. 
Instead,  stately,  indeed  palatial  steamers  plow  the  ocean. 
The  flag  of  the  Rising  Sun  now  disgraces  several  ports 
of  Europe  and  America  by  its  presence. 

Thatched  roofs  are  fast  being  eliminated.  Dwellings 
are  now  bricked  and  stoned.  The  ding-ding-ding  of 
street  cars  and  the  toot-toot-toot  of  automobiles  have 
shattered  the  music  of  Japanese  urban  silence.  It  is  be- 
yond repair.  Not  a  few  have  cast  away  their  footgear 
so  strange,  and  barbarous  western  shoes  now  cover  their 
dainty  feet.  Many  now  fail  to  pray  at  Asakusa  Shrine. 
But  then  these  go  to  Christian  churches,  hideous  con- 
structions devoid  of  art  and  —  in  brief,  curio  Japan  is 
no  more,  or  at  least  it  is  not  Japan  complete.  Her 
strangeness  has  disappeared;  with  it  her  charm.  Japan 
is  the  skeleton  of  a  beauty.  And  now  she  is  conspicu- 
ously human.  She  is  too  common.  Of  course  nobody 
likes  her  now.  But  who  can  help  it?1 

1  Ichihashi,  Yamato,  "  Japan  Liked  and  Disliked,"  New  York 
Japan  Review,  Aug.,  1913,  pp.  109-10. 


36  The  Japanese  Invasion 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  there  was  something 
romantic  and  attractive  about  old  Japan.  Its  quaint 
customs  and  elaborate  politeness  and  artistic  fame 
gained  added  glamour  through  distance  and  unfamili- 
arity.  Above  all  there  was  no  commercial  or  industrial 
rivalry  to  cause  unpleasantness,  and  the  Japanese  very 
courteously  assumed  the  subordinate  role  which  the 
West  assigned  them.  In  1860  the  Japanese  were 
merely  a  newly  discovered  people  whose  strange  cos- 
tumes and  novel  appearance  piqued  our  curiosity.  Our 
reaction  toward  them  was  instinctive,  spontaneous,  and 
unreflecting.  We  never  stopped  to  consider  what  our 
association  with  them  would  involve.  Now  the  situ- 
ation has  entirely  changed.  The  Japanese  no  longer 
flatter  our  pride  by  showing  astonishment  at  our  great- 
ness, but  have  become  our  competitors  in  the  industrial 
and  political  world.  Human  nature  being  as  it  is,  old 
Japan  with  its  works  of  art  and  teachable  people  would 
naturally  be  more  popular  than  modern  Japan  with  its 
battleships  and  aggressive  nationalism  determined  to 
compete  with  us  in  every  field  of  human  endeavor. 
Says  Professor  W.  I.  Thomas: 

The  Japanese  for  fifty  years  have  been  diligently  ac- 
quiring our  habits,  with  the  view  of  equaling  our  activ- 
ities, and  in  the  degree  that  they  showed  ability  equal 
to  ours  along  our  own  lines,  we  began  to  have  a  fellow 
feeling  for  them  and  even  a  very  warm  admiration. 
They  looked  charming  to  us  in  their  own  country,  and 
we  were  progressing  toward  social,  political,  commercial, 
and  matrimonial  alliances  with  them  when  the  genial 
currents  of  our  soul  were  frozen  by  the  discovery  that 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  37 

they  were  dangerous.  In  our  own  country  they  are 
better  fruit  growers  and  farmers  than  we  are  and  their 
standard  of  living  is  lower.  They  are  therefore  a  men- 
ace, and  there  begins  to  be  a  reinstatement  of  the  hate 
attitude,  especially  on  our  western  coast.1 

The  beginning  of  our  awakening  to  the  fact  that 
Japan  was  to  become  a  serious  rival  of  western  nations 
dates  back  to  1894-5,  when  Japan  waged  a  successful 
war  against  China  and  clearly  demonstrated  her  mili- 
tary prowess.  After  this  unexpected  display  of  Japan's 
fighting  power,  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  regard  her 
ambitions  and  national  policies  with  indifference.  For 
more  than  a  generation  the  Japanese  had  been  made 
to  feel  that  they  were  almost  hopelessly  outdistanced 
in  their  efforts  to  catch  up  with  western  progress,  but 
now  the  goal  of  equal  treatment  and  recognition  as  a 
world  power  seemed  about  to  be  realized.  Under  these 
circumstances  their  old  pride  of  race  naturally  re- 
asserted itself.  Their  military  successes  inflamed  the 
masses  of  the  people  and  gave  them  inflated  ideas  .of 
their  own  importance.  In  the  eyes  of  many  Japanese 
their  adaptation  of  western  civilization  was  regarded 
as  a  greater  achievement  than  all  the  scientific  dis- 
coveries of  the  West.  It  began  to  be  asserted  that  in 
Japan  would  be  developed  a  blend  of  oriental  and 
occidental  civilizations  far  superior  to  anything  the 
world  had  ever  seen.  Their  nation  was  to  produce 
the  universal  religion  and  become  such  a  center  of 

1  Thomas,  W.  I.,  "  The  Significance  of  the  Orient  for  the  Occi- 
dent," Atner.  Journ.  Soc.,  13:732. 


38  The  Japanese  Invasion 

knowledge  that  western  scholars  would  some  time  come 
and  sit  at  their  feet.1 

This  development  of  national  pride  and  self- 
consciousness  was  reflected  in  the  Japanese  emigrants 
who  went  abroad  and  also  in  the  attitude  of  the  govern- 
ment which  jealously  watched  over  their  interests.  The 
Japanese,  who,  after  their  war  with  China,  began  to 
arrive  in  America  in  rapidly  increasing  numbers,  were 
filled  with  a  new  sense  of  dignity  and  pride.  They 
did  not  come  as  humble  immigrants  from  a  decadent 
land,  but  as  representatives  of  a  victorious  and  pro- 
gressive nation.  While  temporarily,  by  virtue  of  neces- 
sity, they  might  be  willing  to  occupy  a  servile  position 
as  did  the  Chinese,  this  was  regarded  only  as  a  stepping- 
stone  to  something  better.  They  possessed  the  ambi- 
tion to  rise  out  of  the  ranks  of  unskilled  laborers  and 
took  advantage  of  every  opportunity  to  do  so.  It  was 
this  laudable  ambition,  together  with  a  bold  assertion 
of  their  rights,  that  first  marked  them  out  as  different 
from  the  Chinese,  who  had  always  meekly  accepted 
a  subordinate  place.  It  was  also  their  possession  of 
these  same  characteristics  that  helped  to  make  inevi- 
table the  rise  of  the  Japanese  problem. 

As  early  as  1884  Japanese  peasants  and  coolies 
began  to  arrive  on  our  Pacific  coast,  but  their  numbers 
were  too  small  to  attract  much  attention.  For  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  it  had  been  the  Chinese 
who  constituted  our  oriental  problem.  The  people  in 
the  western  states  believed  that  the  Chinese  invasion 

1  Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  pp.  137-40. 


I 

Closing  of  the  Open  Door  39 

was  the  great  menace  to  their  welfare.  In  their  eyes 
all  the  vices  of  the  Orient  were  summed  up  in  the 
Chinese  coolies,  who  were  coming  in  such  increasing 
numbers  that  it  was  felt  their  absolute  exclusion  was 
imperative.  The  few  Japanese  who  came  to  America 
either  were  looked  upon  with  indifference  or  were 
regarded  with  favor,  for  they  seemed  to  possess  the 
virtues,  but  not  the  vices  of  the  Chinese.  A  writer  in 
Bradstreet's  in  1884,  commenting  on  the  arrival  of  200 
Japanese  peasants  in  San  Francisco,  said : 

It  appears  that  emigration  to  the  United  States  has 
at  last  commenced  in  Japan America  is  to  be  con- 
gratulated on  these  adjuncts  to  western  industry.  The 
Japanese  peasants  are  as  industrious  as  they  are  frugal, 
temperate,  and  skilled  in  agriculture.1 

As  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  few  references 
to  the  Japanese  in  the  press  of  that  day,  this  seems 
to  have  been  the  general  attitude  of  the  American 
public.  Because  of  the  enforcement  of  the  Chinese 
exclusion  law,  employers  were  hard  pressed  to  find 
enough  laborers  to  carry  on  their  work.  To  supply 
this  need  they  looked  to  the  new  Japanese  immigrants 
who  were  regarded  as  more  capable  and  efficient 
workmen. 

In  the  early  nineties,  however,  when  the  tide  of 
Japanese  immigration  began  rapidly  to  increase,  the 
Japanese  became  unpopular  in  those  communities  in 
which  they  had  congregated,  and  suffered  the  same 

1  Bradstreet's,  Oct.  25,  1884,  p.  268. 


40  The  Japanese  Invasion 

odium  that  had  formerly  attached  to  the  Chinese. 
Yoshio  Markino  gives  the  following  vivid  picture  of 
the  feeling  then  existing  against  the  Japanese  in  San 
Francisco : 

The  next  day  I  went  to  the  Golden  Gate  Park  with 
another  Japanese.  Whenever  we  passed  before  the 
crowds,  they  shouted  "Jap"  and  "Sukebei"  (the  latter 
word  is  too  rude  to  translate).  Then  some  of  them 
even  spat  on  us.  When  we  came  out  to  the  corner  of 
Geary  Street,  pebbles  were  showered  on  us.  This  was 
my  first  and  very  last  visit  to  the  Golden  Gate  Park. 

By  the  experiences  day  by  day  I  had  learnt  that  there 
was  nothing  but  domestic  work  left  for  my  livelihood, 
because  the  Californians  didn't  recognize  us  as  the 
humans  and  they  wouldn't  accept  any  of  our  brain 
work 

Once  while  I  was  passing  the  spare  ground  on  the 
corner  of  Fillmore  Street  and  Geary  Street  some  big 
fellow  threw  a  large  stone  at  me.  It  struck  my  head. 
My  hat  was  broken  and  my  head  got  hurt.  I  never 
took  any  notice  but  walked  on. 

A  young  lady  was  walking  on  the  opposite  side  She 
came  to  me  and  said,  "Why  don't  you  get  a  policeman 
to  prison  him?"  I  said,  "No  ma'am,  it  is  quite  useless, 
ma'am.  I  tried  it  once  or  twice  before,  but  police  don't 
take  any  notice  of  us  Japanese."  l 

At  this  time  the  Japanese  were  arriving  on  the 
Pacific  coast  at  the  rate  of  about  1,500  a  year.  By  the 
year  1895  there  were  less  than  ten  thousand  Japanese 
in  the  United  States.  The  fact  that  in  spite  of  the 

1  Markino,  Yoshio,  When  I  Was  a  Child,  pp.  215-27. 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  41 

smallness  of  their  numbers  they  had  so  soon  become 
thoroughly  disliked  gives  an  inkling  of  the  strength 
of  the  prejudice  that  existed  then  in  our  western  states 
against  the  oriental  races. 

This  unpopularity  of  the  Japanese  by  no  means 
checked  their  desire  to  come  to  America.  In  the  year 
1900  our  Japanese  immigrants  numbered  more  than 
12,000.  For  the  next  seven  years  those  arriving  direct 
from  Japan  together  with  those  coming  from  Hawaii 
averaged  about  1 1 ,000  a  year.  The  Japanese  authorities, 
who  were  fully  aware  of  the  American  attitude  toward 
oriental  immigrants,  tried  to  avoid  the  growth  of 
further  opposition  by  placing  restrictions  upon  emigra- 
tion to  the  United  States.  The  strong  demand,  how- 
ever, for  Japanese  laborers  to  work  on  the  sugar 
plantations  in  Hawaii  caused  thousands  to  go  there  for 
employment.  Once  in  Hawaii  they  were  out  of  juris- 
diction of  the  Japanese  government,  and  there  was 
nothing  to  prevent  them  from  going  on  to  the  mainland 
where  wages  were  higher  and  more  congenial  work 
could  be  found.  Japanese  agents  and  contractors  were 
not  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  this  opportunity,  and 
as  a  result  an  almost  continuous  stream  of  Japanese 
was  poured  into  our  western  ports  through  this  gate- 
way of  the  Pacific. 

Even  this  comparatively  large  number  of  Japanese 
laborers  could  easily  have  been  absorbed  in  our  large 
western  states  without  producing  much  friction,  if  they 
had  been  distributed  more  evenly  in  different  places. 
But  California  was  the  most  convenient,  as  well  as  the 


42  The  Japanese  Invasion 

most  attractive  place  for  them  to  settle  and  as  a  conse- 
quence fifty-five  per  cent  of  the  Japanese  immigrants 
crowded  into  a  few  of  its  cities  and  country  districts. 
San  Francisco,  the  chief  port  of  entry,  became  their 
most  important  place  of  rendezvous  and  residence 
while  searching  for  work.  This  concentration  of  the 
Japanese  in  a  small  section  of  our  country  served  to 
call  attention  to  their  presence  and  made  their  com- 
petition in  the  labor  market  more  keenly  felt. 

As  soon  as  American  laborers  realized  that  the 
presence  of  the  Japanese  was  making  their  struggle 
for  existence  harder,  their  latent  prejudice  against 
them  as  Orientals  broke  out  into  open  hostility.  Poli- 
ticians and  labor  leaders  were  quick  to  make  capital 
out  of  this  issue  in  order  io  promote  their  own  interests. 
Racial  differences  were  emphasized  and  race  prejudice 
was  appealed  to  until  the  economic  factor  was  almost 
pushed  into  the  background,  and  the  problem  assumed 
the  proportions  of  a  racial  struggle  between  the  East 
and  the  West. 

The  active  campaign  against  the  Japanese  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  with  the  publication  in  February, 
1905,  in  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle  of  a  series  of 
articles  which  in  sensational  language  pointed  out  the 
dangers  of  this  new  Yellow  Peril.  Said  the  Chronicle : 

The  issue  involves  the  entire  structure  and  character 
of  American  society  and  concerns  the  manual  laborer 
not  one  whit  more  than  others Sufficient  has  al- 
ready occurred  here  to  make  it  plain  that  if  Japanese 
immigration  is  unchecked,  it  is  only  a  question  of  time 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  43 

when  our  rural  population  will  be  Japanese,  our  rural 
civilization  Japanese,  and  the  white  population  hard 
pressed  in  our  cities  and  towns.  The  Chinese  were 
faithful  laborers  and  did  not  buy  land.  The  Japanese 
are  unfaithful  laborers  and  do  buy  land.  There  is 
all  the  difference  in  the  world.  They  are  driving  their 
stakes  in  our  fruit-growing  districts  where  they  intend 
to  stay  and  possess  the  land.  The  people  of  California 
are  determined  that  they  shall  do  neither.  And  we 
are  prepared  to  take  that  stand  and  insist  upon  it,  re- 
gardless of  the  consequences  to  our  fruit  industry,  our 
sugar  beet  industry,  or  any  other  industry.  What  work 
cannot  be  done  without  oriental  labor,  that  work  must 
go  unperformed.  Our  fruit  industries  are  important. 
Our  land,  our  homes,  and  our  civilization  are  far  more 
important.  And  they  are  in  danger.1 

'  On  May  7,  1905,  the  first  anti- Japanese  convention 
met  in  San  Francisco  and  adopted  a  resolution  protest- 
ing against  the  national  policy  which  permitted  Japa- 
nese immigrants  to  come  to  our  shores  and  lower  the 
standards  of  American  civilization.  About  the  same 
time  the  San  Francisco  Board  of  Education  passed 
an  action  stating  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  segregate 
Japanese  from  white  pupils  in  the  public  schools.  In 
the  autumn  of  that  year,  the  newly  organized  Japanese 
and  Korean  Exclusion  League  urged  the  Board  of 
Education  to  carry  into  effect  the  policy  of  the  segre- 
gation of  Japanese  pupils.  The  Board  of  Education, 
however,  did  not  deem  it  wise  to  do  so  at  that  time.2 

1  Quoted  by  the  Literary  Digest,  Mar.  25,  1905,  pp.  420-21. 

2  Kawakami,  K.  K.,  American-Japanese  Relations,  pp.  305-6. 


44  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Meanwhile  the  attention  of  the  whole  country  was 
called  to  the  anti-Japanese  sentiment  in  California, 
which  threatened  to  involve  the  nation  in  international 
complications.  The  American  public  in  general  mani- 
fested surprise  and  indignation  at  the  attitude  of  the 
Calif ornians.  Those  who  had  been  watching  sympa- 
thetically the  remarkable  progress  of  the  Japanese 
nation  and  whose  contact  with  the  Japanese  was 
limited  to  their  association  with  a  few  Japanese  stu- 
dents or  officials  utterly  failed  to  comprehend  the 
situation  on  the  Pacific  coast.  From  their  point  of 
view  an  act  of  injustice  was  being  done  to  a  people 
who  merited  our  kindest  consideration.  The  Washing- 
ton  Evening  Star  in  the  following  words  expressed 
the  general  attitude  of  the  people  in  the  eastern  states : 

To  the  extent  that  there  has  been  any  actual  outbreak 
of  anti-Japanese  feeling  anywhere  in  this  country,  the 
people  of  the  United  States  have  occasion  to  be  ashamed 

of  themselves If  the  people  of  the  coast  are  in 

truth  engaged  in  any  form  of  anti-Japanese  crusade  or 
are  showing  a  prejudice  against  the  Japanese,  they  are 
open  to  the  emphatic  condemnation  of  the  whole  people 
of  this  country.  Our  interests  in  the  Far  East,  to  speak 
commercially,  are  too  heavy  and  important  to  be  placed 
in  jeopardy  by  a  wanton  insult  of  the  dominant  power. 
Our  good  faith  as  a  nation  is  pledged  to  the  observance 
of  certain  international  proprieties.  Let  proper  repre- 
sentations be  made  to  the  Japanese  people  that  will  re- 
pudiate the  mistakes  and  follies  of  those  who  are  now 
engaged  in  this  foolish,  dangerous  propaganda. "  * 

1  Quoted  by  the  Literary  Digest,  Nov.  3,  1906,  p.  622. 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  45 

President  Roosevelt,  in  his  message  to  Congress 
in  December,  1905,  gave  considerable  space  to  the 
California-Japanese  problem  and  in  strong  terms 
repudiated  the  exclusion  movement.  Later  in  the 
month,  after  receiving  Secretary  Metcalfs  special 
report  on  the  situation  in  California,  he  sent  another 
message  to  Congress  in  which  he  reiterated  his  former 
views  and  spoke  of  the  injustice  of  discrimination 
against  the  Japanese  pupils.1 

This  Federal  opposition  to  the  segregation  of  Japa- 
nese pupils  had  some  influence  on  those  in  authority 
in  San  Francisco,  for  no  immediate  attempt  was  made 
to  carry  their  segregation  policy  into  effect.  On 
April  1 8,  1906,  occurred  the  San  Francisco  earthquake 
which  caused  the  destruction  of  thirty-six  out  of 
seventy-five  schools  in  the  city.  In  the  autumn  of  that 
year  the  Board  of  Education  of  San  Francisco,  claim- 
ing that  because  of  the  recent  calamity  their  school 
accommodations  were  inadequate,  ordered  the  oriental 
children  to  attend  a  separate  school.  When  this  order 
was  issued  there  were  ninety-three  Japanese  pupils 
attending  twenty-three  schools  and  it  was  asserted 
that,  distributed  as  they  were  in  various  parts  of  the 
city,  they  could  have  been  accommodated  without 
overtaxing  the  capacity  of  any  school.  The  school 
board  endeavored  to  justify  their  action  by  pointing 
out  the  danger  of  allowing  Japanese  young  men  to  sit 
in  the  same  classes  with  white  girls  in  the  primary 

1  The  Congressional  Record,  SQth  Congress,  2nd  Session,  Sen- 
ate Doc.  No.  147. 


46  The  Japanese  Invasion 

grades.  Since  they  did  not  make  public  the  fact  that 
there  were  but  six  Japanese  boys  above  fifteen  years 
of  age  in  the  primary  grades  at  that  time,  their  cry 
of  the  moral  peril  of  innocent  children  served  the 
purpose  of  gaining  much  sympathy  for  their  cause. 

The  Japanese  on  their  part  were  so  offended  at  this 
act  of  discrimination  against  them  that  they  refused 
to  send  their  children  to  the  oriental  school.  Formal 
protests  received  from  Japan  through  the  regular 
diplomatic  channels  further  complicated  the  affair  and 
made  it  necessary  for  the  Federal  government  to  take 
a  hand  in  bringing  about  a  settlement.  After  con- 
siderable negotiations  the  San  Francisco  school 
authorities  ended  the  difficulty  by  adopting  regulations 
which  defined  the  age  limits  within  which  alien  children 
could  attend  the  different  grades  of  the  public  schools, 
an  arrangement  which  was  perfectly  satisfactory  to  the 
Japanese,  since  it  avoided  invidious  race  distinctions. 
This  compromise  was  agreed  to  by  the  authorities  in 
San  Francisco  upon  the  consideration  that  the  Federal 
government  should  take  steps  to  stop  the  immigration 
of  Japanese  laborers.1 

Duringxthe  progress  of  these  negotiations,  the  bitter 
feeling  against  the  Japanese  in  San  Francisco  broke 
out  in  open  acts  of  violence.  Japanese  places  of  busi- 
ness were  attacked  and  wrecked,  and  assaults  were 
made  upon  Japanese  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 
Dr.  T.  Omori,  recognized  as  an  authority  on  seismog- 

1  Kcnnan,  George,  "  Japanese  in  San  Francisco  Schools,"  the 
Outlook,  86 : 246. 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  47 

raphy,  who  had  been  sent  to  San  Francisco  by  the 
Tokyo  Imperial  University  to  investigate  the  causes 
and  effects  of  the  earthquake,  was  stoned  by  a  crowd 
of  ruffians  while  engaged  in  his  scientific  observations. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  San  Francisco 
at  that  time  was  in  a  disorganized  condition  and  that 
the  disorderly  elements  in  the  city  were  with  difficulty 
kept  under  control. 

In  February,  1907,  Congress,  in  response  to  the 
demands  of  the  people  of  California,  took  its  first  step 
toward  the  exclusion  of  the  Japanese  by  incorporating 
in  the  Immigration  Act  the  fallowing  provision : 

Whenever  the  President  shall  be  satisfied  that  pass- 
ports issued  by  any  foreign  government  to  its  citizens 
to  go  to  any  other  country  than  the  United  States,  or 
to  any  insular  possession  of  the  United  States,  or  to  the 
Canal  Zone,  are  being  used  for  the  purpose  of  enabling 
the  holders  to  come  to  the  continental  territories  of  the 
United  States  to  the  detriment  of  the  labor  conditions 
therein,  the  President  may  refuse  such  citizens  of  the 
country  issuing  such  passports  to  enter  the  continental 
territory  of  the  United  States  from  such  other  country 
or  from  such  insular  possessions  or  from  the  Canal 
Zone.1 

In  accordance  with  this  action  President  Roosevelt 
on  March  14,  1907,  issued  a  proclamation  excluding 
from  continental  United  States  "  Japanese  or  Korean 
laborers,  skilled  or  unskilled,  who  have  received  pass- 
ports to  go  to  Mexico,  Canada,  or  Hawaii,  and  come 
therefrom/*  This  regulation  stopped  the  flow  of 

1  Senate  Documents,  6ist  Congress,  21 :  no. 


48  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Japanese  immigration  from  Hawaii  as  well  as  that 
across  the  border  from  Canada  and  Mexico,  but  it  was 
still  within  the  power  of  the  Japanese  government  to 
grant  passports  that  would  give  the  right  of  entrance 
into  the  United  States.  Japan,  however,  knowing  full 
well  that  further  Japanese  immigration  might  lead 
to  a  direct  act  of  exclusion,  asserted  its  intention  to 
issue  passports  to  continental  United  States  only  to 
non-laborers,  or  to  laborers  who  were  former  residents, 
or  settled  agriculturalists.  This  so-called  "  Gentlemen's 
Agreement "  has  been  strictly  adhered  to  by  the 
Japanese  authorities  and  has  effectively  stoppefl  the 
immigration  of  Japanese  laborers.1 

In  1911,  when  America  and  Japan  entered  upon 
negotiations  for  a  new  treaty,  the  people  on  the  Pacific 
coast  and  especially  in  California  demanded  that  the 
treaty  should  expressly  provide  for  the  exclusion  of 
Japanese  laborers.  The  American  government,  how- 
ever, thought  it  unnecessary  to  subject  Japan  to  this 
humiliation,  since  the  problem  was  being  satisfactorily 
solved  by  a  voluntary  agreement.  The  following  note, 

1  The  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration  in  his  report  for 
the  year  1909  (p.  121)  expressed  the  following  opinion  about  the 
"Agreement " :  "  The  experiment  certainly  with  the  cooperation 
of  the  Japanese  government,  much  more  completely  accomplished 
the  exclusion  of  Japanese  laborers,  as  defined  in  the  regulations 
putting  the  arrangement  into  effect  than  have  the  Chinese  ex- 
clusion laws  ever  operated  to  prevent  the  immigration  of  CI) 
laborers  as  defined  in  such  laws,  and  is  working  at  this  moment 
with  a  greater  degree  of  relative  success." 

Mr.  Tokutomi  in  an  article  in  the  Kokumin  Shimbun  of  Dec. 
26,  1914,  said  that  "the  'Agreement'  has  made  it  almost  as  diffi- 
cult to  get  to  America  as  it  is  to  get  to  heaven  " 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  49 

issued  by  the  Japanese  Ambassador  at  Washington, 
reasserted  Japan's  willingness  to  continue  her  policy 
of  restriction  of  emigration  and  still  stands  as  the  only 
barrier  in  the  way  of  our  invasion  by  hordes  of 
Japanese  laborers : 

In  proceeding  this  day  to  the  signature  of  the  Treaty 
of  Commerce  and  Navigation  between  Japan  and  the 
United  States,  the  undersigned,  Japanese  Ambassador 
in  Washington,  duly  authorized  by  his  government,  has 
the  honor  to  declare  that  the  Imperial  Japanese  Govern- 
ment are  fully  prepared  to  maintain  with  equal  effec- 
tiveness the  limitation  and  control  which  they  have  for 
the  past  three  years  exercised  in  regulation  of  the  emi- 
gration of  laborers  to  the  United  States.1 

In  such  a  manner  has  the  door  of  the  United  States 
been  closed  to  Japanese  laborers.  As  far  as  external 
appearances  were  concerned,  the  door  was  not  slammed 
in  their  faces  as  it  was  in  the  case  of  the  Chinese  in 
1882  when  actual  exclusion  laws  were  enacted.  It  is 
nevertheless  well  known  that  all  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions were  at  a  deadlock  before  the  Japanese  very 
cleverly  got  out  of  the  difficulty  by  adopting  a  policy 
which  proved  satisfactory  to  America  and  at  the  same 
time  did  not  cut  them  off  entirely  from  the  privilege 
of  immigration  to  this  country.  In  discussions  of  the 
Japanese  immigration  problem,  it  does  not  always  seem 
to  be  clearly  recognized  that  the  existing  agreement 
applies  only  to  unskilled  laborers  and  that  with  the 
exception  of  this  one  class  there  is  no  bar  to  the 

1  Treaties,  Conventions,  and  Agreements  between  the  United 
States  of  America  and  Other  Powers,  vol.  3,  p.  82. 


50  The  Japanese  Invasion 

entrance  of  Japanese  into  the  United  States.  A  glance 
at  the  accompanying  table  will  reveal  the  fact  that  since 
1909,  when  the  effects  of  the  agreement  were  first  seen, 
there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  in  the  number  of 
Japanese  immigrants  until  now  more  are  landing  on 
f:he  Pacific  coast  than  arrived  twelve  years  ago  when 
matters  first  reached  a  crisis. 

NUMBER    OF    JAPANESE    ARRIVALS1 


Year    Continental  U.S. 

Hawaii 

Total 

1902 

5.325 

9,130 

14,455 

1903 

6,990 

13,051 

20,041 

1904 

7.771 

6,611 

14,382 

1905 

4,319 

6,702 

11,021 

1906 

5.178 

9,065 

14,243 

1907 

10,230 

20,415 

30,645 

1908 

9.544 

8,694 

18,238 

1909 

2,432 

i,493 

3,925 

1910 

2,598 

1,527 

4,125 

1911 

4,282 

2,159 

6,441 

1912 

5,358 

3,231 

8,589 

19*3 

6,771 

4,901 

11,672 

1914 

8,462 

4,554 

13,016 

1915 

9,029 

3,208 

12,237 

1916 

9,100 

3,607 

12,707 

While  it  is  true  that  the  Japanese  authorities  are 
living  up  to  their  agreement  in  regard  to  the  restriction 
of  the  emigration  of  laborers,  it  is  also  true  that  the 
Japanese  are  still  achieving  their  purpose  of  main- 
taining the  open  door  into  the  United  States.  The 
exclusion  agitation  has  simply  resulted  in  raising  the 

1  Taken  from  Annual  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Immi- 
gration of  the  United  States. 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  51 

standard  of  Japanese  immigrants  instead  of  barring 
them  from  the  country  as  is  often  popularly  supposed. 
The  experience  of  the  past  few  years  has  proven  that 
the  exclusion  of  Japanese  coolies  will  not  necessarily 
be  a  check  to  Japanese  immigration.  The  industrial 
and  economic  conditions  in  Japan  are  such  that  thou- 
sands of  the  middle  classes — farmers,  shopkeepers, 
and  skilled  artisans  —  are  eager  to  come  to  America, 
where  opportunities  for  success  are  so  great.  The 
gradual  increase  of  Japanese  immigrants  during  the 
past  five  years  would  seem  to  indicate  on  the  part  of 
the  Japanese  government  a  tendency  to  issue  an  in- 
creasing number  of  passports  to  America  as  long  as 
no  determined  opposition  would  make  such  a  course 
inadvisable.  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  recent  Japanese  immigration  has  consisted  of 
women,  a  fact  which  is  making  possible  the  establish- 
ment of  families  and  a  further  increase  of  our  Japanese 
population  through  the  birth  of  children.  According  to 
the  Japanese- American  Yearbook,  3,054  Japanese  chil- 
dren were  born  in  the  United  States  in  19 14.1 

1  The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration, 
1915,  classifies  the  Japanese  arrivals  during  that  year  according 
to  occupation  as  follows : 

Professional    511 

Skilled  509 

Farmers  and  farm  laborers 1,896 

Laborers 817 

Merchants    637 

Miscellaneous    1,610 

No  occupation,  including  women  and  children.  .3,049 

Total   9,029 


52  The  Japanese  Invasion 

While  this  attempt  to  close  the  door  to  the  Japanese 
has  resulted  in  at  least  a  partial  failure,  there  is  no 
evidence  of  a  change  of  heart  on  the  part  of  the 
American  people.  The  public  opinion  of  practically 
the  whole  nation  demands  the  restriction  of  Asiatic 
immigration,  whether  it  be  from  Japan  or  China  or 
India. 

In  1909  Mr.  Roosevelt  gave  expression  in  the  fol- 
lowing words  to  an  opinion  which  is  now  shared  even 
by  many  of  those  most  favorably  disposed  toward  the 
Japanese : 

The  Americans  who  go  to  Japan  and  the  Japanese  who 
come  to  America  should  be  of  the  same  general  class  — 
that  is,  they  should  be  travelers,  students,  teachers, 
scientific  investigators,  men  engaged  in  international 
business,  men  sojourning  in  the  land  for  pleasure  or 
study. 

As  long  as  the  emigration  from  each  side  is  limited  to 
classes  such  as  these,  there  will  be  no  settlement  in  mass, 
and  therefore  no  difficulty.  Wherever  there  is  settle- 
ment in  mass  —  that  is,  whenever  there  is  a  large  immi- 
gration of  urban  or  agricultural  laborers,  or  of  people 
engaged  in  small  local  business  of  any  kind  —  there  is 
sure  to  be  friction.  It  is  against  the  interests  of  both 
nations  that  such  unrestricted  immigration  or  settlement 
in  mass  should  be  allowed  as  regards  either  nation.  This 
is  the  cardinal  fact  in  the  situation ;  it  should  be  freely 
recognized  by  both  countries  and  can  be  accepted  by  each 
not  only  without  the  slightest  loss  of  self-respect,  but 
with  the  certainty  that  its  acceptance  will  tend  to  pre- 
serve mutual  respect  and  friendliness.1 

1  Roosevelt,  Theodore,  "  The  Japanese  Question,"  the  Outlook, 
92:61. 


Closing  of  the  Open  Door  53 

The  necessity  of  our  placing  restrictions  upon  orien- 
tal immigration  is  no  longer  questioned  even  by  the 
Japanese.  Our  present  injustice  in  their  opinion  con- 
sists in  our  discrimination  against  them,  our  closing 
the  door  to  their  people  while  holding  it  open  to 
laborers  from  all  the  countries  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   PROBLEM    FROM    THE   JAPANESE   VIEWPOINT 


opposition  shown  to  the  Japanese  immigrants 
in  America  has  stirred  the  Japanese  nation  pro- 
foundly, and  has  aroused  such  deep  feelings  of  resent- 
ment among  the  people  that  at  times  war  has  seemed 
almost  inevitable.  The  Japanese  government  itself, 
while  maintaining  its  attitude  of  friendliness  toward 
America,  has,  in  its  efforts  to  adjust  the  difficulty  by 
diplomacy,  followed  a  firm  and  aggressive  policy  that 
plainly  recognizes  the  seriousness  of  the  questions  at 
issue.  The  more  frank  and  outspoken  among  the 
Japanese  have  not  hesitated  to  express  their  indigna- 
tion against  America  in  words  of  open  defiance. 

During  the  progress  of  the  negotiations  in  1906  to 
restrict  Japanese  immigration,  Marquis  Okuma,  then 
not  officially  connected  with  the  government,  voiced 
the  feelings  of  many  of  his  countrymen  in  a  telegram 
to  the  New  York  World  which  read  in  part  as  follows  : 

Any  repetition  of  the  injustices  against  Japanese  will 
seriously  impair  our  warm  feelings  toward  America,  and 
our  traditional  friendship  will  be  weakened  thereby. 
Fair  and  just  treatment  is  essential  to  maintain  friend- 
ship. Repeated  outrageous  acts  will  not  only  damage 
American  interests,  but  also  disgrace  American  civiliza- 
tion .....  America  has  no  enemy  at  present,  and  it  will 
be  a  thoughtless  policy  if  America  purposely  makes  an 

54 


The  Japanese  Viewpoint  55 

enemy  by  inflaming  public  opinion  against  Japan.  The 
United  States  is  the  wealthiest  country  in  the  world,  but 
it  has  not  sufficient  defense  in  the  Pacific  if  the  two 
nations  are  to  come  to  hostilities. 

There  is  nothing  more  dreadful  than  crazy  persons. 
The  Japanese  are  a  crazy  nation  in  fighting,  and  will  dis- 
play their  madness  as  in  the  late  war.  The  Japanese  are 
always  ready  to  throw  away  their  lives  for  their  nation ; 
they  regard  their  lives  as  lightly  as  they  do  the  weather. 
On  the  other  hand,  Americans  and  Europeans  attach  the 
chief  importance  to  money.  Those  who  love  money  love 
their  lives.  Suppose  the  two  nations,  whose  ideas  toward 
death  are  fundamentally  different,  should  fight.  The 
final  result  is  easily  seen,  and  the  understanding  of  this 
fact  seems  to  be  the  cause  of  America  trying  to  expand 
the  navy  on  a  great  scale.1 

Another  Japanese,  Mr.  Adachi  Kinnosuke,  in  an 
article  in  the  Independent  in  1907  on  "The  Attitude 
of  Japan  toward  the  United  States/'  expressed  himself 
even  more  frankly  to  the  American  public : 

Is  the  Japanese  government  a  special  institution  es- 
tablished for  the  sole  purpose  of  comforting  an  unrea- 
sonable whim  of  American  labor  unions,  at  the  expense 
of  the  material  interests  of  say  200,000  Japanese  laboring 
class  who  may  manage  to  come  into  this  country  within 
the  coming  ten  years?  Why  not  the  same  undaunted 
front  which  we  had  turned  upon  our  friends,  the  Rus- 
sians, a  few  years  ago?  It  is  the  pleasure  of  the  Cali- 
fornian  to  place  us  on  the  same  plane  with  the  Chinese 
and  with  the  extinct  race  called  the  Korean.  And  we 
ask  for  an  exclusion  convention  and  beg  for  the  sweet 
humiliation  before  anybody  suggests  it. 

1  Quoted  in  Lawton,  L.,  The  Empires  of  the  Far  East,  vol.  I, 
pp.  362-64. 


56  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Is  Japan,  then,  afraid  of  America?  When  a  question 
of  national  honor  is  before  us,  we  would  not  hesitate  a 
moment  to  take  up  arms  against  all  the  gods  and  the 
devils,  let  alone  an  earthly  power.  This  is  no  rhetoric. 
When  we  declared  war  against  China  everybody  thought, 
ourselves  included,  and  even  the  most  enlightened  press 
of  that  torchbearer  of  civilization  called  the  United 
States,  all  thought  that  the  Middle  Kingdom  had  a  rather 
light  before-the-breakfast  job;  and  today  we  of  Nippon 
certainly  do  not  think  that  America  is  anything  as  seri- 
ous a  foe  as  Russia  seemed  to  us  in  1904. 

Some  wise  people,  gentlemen  in  the  Foreign  Office  at 
Tokyo,  and  some  of  your  Washington  officials,  take  you 
for  innocent  babies  and  seriously  tell  you  that  it  is  the 
national  policy  of  Japan  to  keep  her  working  people  at 
home,  in  Korea,  and  Manchuria ;  in  just  that  portion  of 
the  globe,  in  short,  where  she  is  more  likely  to  be  called 
upon  to  take  serious  measures.  But  reflect  for  a  moment 
upon  this:  We  are  supporting  well  nigh  fifty  millions 
of  people  on  190,534  square  miles  (I  have  counted  in 
everything,  Formosa,  Sakhalin,  Pescadores),  sixty  per 
cent  of  which  are  volcanic  rocks  unavailable  for  cultiva- 
tion ;  while  California  supports  not  very  much  more  than 
two  millions  on  her  158,360  square  miles;  we  are  increas- 
ing at  the  rate  of  about  700,000  a  year,  our  Calif ornians 
at  about  28,000.  Don't  you  think  that  our  country  may 
spare  a  few  hundred  thousand  laboring  class  to  come 
over  to  this  paradise  of  laboring  people  and  share  in 
its  blessings?1 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  above  fairly  represented 
the  feelings  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Japanese  people 
when  the  exclusion  agreement  went  into  effect.  This 
rejection  of  their  immigrants  seemed  to  them  an  insult 

1  The  Independent,  vol.  62,  1907,  p.  1458. 


The  Japanese  Viewpoint  57 

which  no  first-class  power  could  afford  to  overlook. 
After  having  made  so  much  progress  in  western  civil- 
ization, they  bitterly  resented  being  treated  as  though 
they  were  still  ignorant  and  undesirable  Asiatics.1 
Both  their  pride  as  a  nation  and  their  prestige  in  the 
world  were  injured,  and  many  felt  that  even  though 
it  involved  recourse  to  desperate  measures  their 
national  honor  must  be  vindicated. 

The  leaders  of  the  Japanese  nation,  however,  did 
not  allow  themselves  to  be  swayed  by  public  opinion. 
In  accordance  with  their  agreement,  passports  to 
America  were  refused  to  Japanese  laborers,  and  every 
effort  was  made  in  an  official  way  to  maintain  the  old 
friendly  attitude  toward  the  American  people. 

The  excitement  occasioned  by  the  exclusion  agree- 
ment had  hardly  died  down  before  the  passage  of  the 
California  alien  land  law2  in  1913  again  brought  the 
immigration  problem  before  the  attention  of  the  public. 
This  new  act  of  discrimination  against  the  Japanese 
immigrants  caused  another  wave  of  anti- American 
feeling  in  Japan  which  threatened  to  result  in  serious 
complications.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  Japanese 
this  new  move  of  the  Californians  seemed  entirely 
unjustifiable.  Their  part  of  the  exclusion  agreement 
had  been  carried  out  so  strictly  that  the  immigration 

1  Tokutomi,  "  America  Forward,  Japan  Backward,"  Kokumin 
Shimbun,  Dec.  29,  1914. 

2  This  law  provided  that  only  aliens  eligible  to  citizenship  under 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  could  possess  land  in  the  state. 
Since  the  Japanese  are  not  eligible  to  citizenship,  this  deprived 
them  of  the  right  to  purchase  any  land,  whether  for  agricultural, 
business,  or  residential  purposes. 


58  The  Japanese  Invasion 

of  Japanese  laborers  had  practically  ceased.  The  old 
cry  of  the  Calif ornians  that  they  were  in  danger  of 
being  overrun  by  Asiatic  hordes  could  no  longer  be 
made.  In  the  eyes  of  the  Japanese  this  attempt  to 
dispossess  their  countrymen  in  California  was  simply 
an  act  of  unwarranted  hostility  inspired  by  race  hatred. 
It  brought  them  new  evidence  that  they  were  still 
regarded  as  an  inferior  race,  unfit  to  associate  with  the 
West  on  terms  of  social  equality. 

Their  contention  with  America  seemed  to  them  to 
involve  far  more  than  an  outlet  for  Japan's  surplus 
population.  They  regarded  it  as  a  struggle  for  rights 
the  possession  of  which  were  necessary  for  the  honor 
of  their  nation.  In  the  war  with  Russia  Japan  fought 
against  European  aggression  which  threatened  her 
continued  existence  as  an  independent  power.  In  the 
diplomatic  struggle  with  America  Japan  was  still 
continuing  her  efforts  to  overcome  the  domineering 
attitude  of  the  West.1  How  vital  this  struggle  seemed 

1  Professor  Ryotaro  Nagai  of  Waseda  University  in  an  article 
on  'The  White  Peril "  (Japan  Magazine,  May,  1914)  wrote  as 
follows:  "If  one  race  assumes  the  right  to  appropriate  all  the 
wealth,  why  should  not  all  the  other  races  feel  ill  used  and  pro- 
test? If  the  yellow  races  are  oppressed  by  the  white  races,  and 
have  to  revolt  to  avoid  congestion  and  maintain  existence,  whose 
fault  is  it  but  that  of  the  aggressors?  ....  If  the  white  races  truly 
love  peace,  and  wish  to  deserve  the  name  of  Christian  nations, 
they  will  practice  what  they  preach  and  will  soon  restore  to  us 

the  rights  so  long  withheld Any  suggestion  that  we  must 

be  forever  content  to  remain  inferior  races  will  not  abide.  Such 
an  attitude  is  absolutely  inconsistent  with  our  honor  as  a  nation 
and  our  sovereign  rights  as  independent  states.  We  therefore 
appeal  to  the  white  races  to  put  aside  their  race  prejudice  and 
meet  us  on  equal  terms  in  brotherly  cooperation." 


The  Japanese  Viewpoint  59 

to  them  is  revealed  in  the  following  statement  by  Dr. 
Masao  Kobe,  a  professor  in  Kyoto  Imperial  University : 

If  we  let  the  California  anti- Japanese  movement  stand 
where  it  is  now,  it  simply  means  increasing  injury  to  the 

dignity  of  our  country If  our  government  could 

not  see  the  anti-alien  land  law  nullified  and  naturaliza- 
tion rights  affirmed  by  the  American  people,  if  there 
were  any  signs  of  weakness  in  diplomatic  negotiations 
with  the  United  States,  China  might  begin  to  mock  us 
and  the  Koreans  might  become  disobedient  to  the  Japa- 
nese administration.  The  position  of  Japan,  then,  is  worse 
than  the  defeated  nation  in  a  big  war.  As  Japan  stands 
now,  she  is  a  badly  whipped  nation  by  the  Americans, 
and  the  American  jingoes  tell  us  that  the  Americans 
would,  if  war  started  between  the  two  countries,  in  the 
end  whip  Japan.  But  they  have  already  whipped  us. 
Japan  therefore  neither  loses  nor  gains,  whether  she  went 
to  war  with  United  States  and  got  whipped  just  as  the 
American  jingoes  predicted.  So  she  might  just  as  well 
go  to  war.  Of  course  we  do  not  like  war,  but  do  the 
Americans  know  what  they  are  doing  against  us? 

If  the  Japanese  have  less  human  rights  in  any  shape 
or  form,  and  have  to  enjoy  less  life  and  property  than 
any  first-class  power  in  the  world,  Japan  loses  her  pres- 
tige in  Asia,  which  position  corresponds  to  complete  de- 
feat after  she  dared  to  go  to  war.1 

This  same  view  is  expressed  in  a  more  temperate 
form  by  Dr.  Juichi  Soyeda,  former  Vice  Minister  of 
Finance : 

The  fundamental  question  in  the  California  land  trou- 
ble is  that  of  discrimination.  It  is  a  matter  of  honor. 
If  for  the  purpose  of  self-protection  the  United  States 

1  New  York  Japan  Review,  Sept,  1913,  P-  163. 


60  The  Japanese  Invasion 

determine  that  no  alien  should  hold  land,  that  would  be 
all  well  and  good.  The  United  States  would  have  a  per- 
fect right  to  do  so,  and  everyone  would  respect  that 
right.  But  when  we  alone  are  discriminated  against,  we 
feel  that  we  must  protest.1 

From  the  Japanese  viewpoint  this  is  the  crux  of  the 
whole  problem.  Those  who  criticize  the  Japanese 
government  for  taking  so  seriously  a  seemingly  trivial 
affair,  overlook  the  fact  that  an  important  principle 
is  involved.  The  Japanese  insist  that  they  have  devel- 
oped far  enough  in  western  civilization  and  culture 
to  receive  equal  treatment  in  all  their  foreign  relations. 
If  they  meekly  submit  to  discrimination,  it  is  a  con- 
fession of  their  inferiority.  Their  national  honor  is 
at  stake  and  so  all  the  forces  of  their  nation  are  united 
in  a  determination  to  win  out  in  this  struggle  against 
what  they  feel  is  western  arrogance. 

For  more  than  ten  years  this  irritating  problem  has 
been  before  the  Japanese  people.  It  has  formed  a 
fruitful  theme  for  discussion  both  in  the  newspaper 
press  and  on  the  public  rostrum.  The  constant  reiter- 
ation of  the  wrongs  endured  by  their  countrymen  in 
California  has  done  much  to  arouse  in  Japan  a  public 
opinion  if  not  hostile  to  America  at  least  unfriendly 
and  suspicious.  Especially  was  this  unfriendly  spirit 
manifest  in  Japan  during  the  closing  months  of  1914, 
when  a  large  portion  of  the  American  press  showed 
marked  sympathy  for  China  and  expressed  disapproval 

1  Quoted  in  editorial  in  New  York  Japan  Review,  Dec.,  1913, 
p.  278. 


The  Japanese  V^e^vpoint  61 

of  Japan's  aggressive  oriental  policy.  This  was  the 
added  fuel  necessary  to  cause  their  resentment  against 
America  to  burst  forth  into  flame.  Their  newspapers 
began  to  publish  bellicose  articles  and  even  the  common 
talk  of  the  people  on  the  street  was  about  war  with 
America.  In  the  pamphlet  entitled  The  Friendship 
of  America  for  Japan,  issued  in  connection  with  the 
visit  of  Dr.  Shailer  Mathews  and  Dr.  Sidney  L.  Gulick 
to  the  Orient,  appear  the  following  quotations  from 
letters  written  by  residents  of  Japan  for  the  purpose 
of  informing  this  "  Christian  Embassy"  of  the  attitude 
of  the  Japanese  toward  America:1 

For  a  long  time  I  was  unwilling  to  believe  that  the 
Japanese  people  at  large  cherished  feelings  of  enmity 
towards  America,  but  the  evidence  that  they  are  wait- 
ing eagerly  for  an  opportunity  to  go  to  war  wiin  us  is 
getting  too  strong  to  be  any  longer  ignored  except  by 
those  who  are  wilfully  blind  or  wholly  out  of  touch 
with  conditions  here.  Not  only  is  the  "jingo"  tone  of 
much  of  the  press  very  pronounced  (I  have  been  shocked 
at  some  of  the  offensive  things  I  have  seen  in  the  Jap- 
anese papers),  but  the  common  talk  is  all  toward  war. 
—  Kyushu,  Sept.  4,  1914. 

It  is  remarkable  what  a  common  opinion  there  is 
among  the  common  people  that  war  between  Japan  and 
the  United  States  is  inevitable.  The  jingoistic  press  has 
pounded  that  idea  early  and  late  until  the  people  are 
coming  to  believe  it. —  Central  Japan,  Oct.  ?,  1914. 

You  cannot  fail  to  have  recognized  in  the  Japanese 
press  the  tone  of  bitterness  and  irritation  that  charac- 

1  For  obvious  reasons  these  quotations  were  published  in  the 
pamphlet  unsigned. 


62  The  Japanese  Invasion 

terizes  many  of  their  articles  on  American-Japanese  re- 
lations, and  also  the  fact  that  they  tend  to  put  a  sinister 
interpretation  on  many  of  the  acts  of  our  government 
and  of  individual  Americans.  I  find  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  the  widely  spread  feeling  of  irritation  and  re- 
sentment.—  Kyoto,  Nov.  9,  1914. 

I  regret  to  say  that  the  campaign  of  virulence  against 
the  United  States  still  goes  on  in  the  vernacular  press, 
and  since  the  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe  seems  to  be 
more  bitter  than  ever.  That  this  is  not  my  opinion  alone 
you  will  see  from  the  clippings  showing  protests  from 
both  Japan  and  America.  It  is  the  same  thing  that  went 
on  for  some  time  before  the  rupture  of  relations  with 
Russia,  and  I  fear  it  will  lead  to  trouble  again  unless 
the  people  of  Japan  be  given  an  opportunity  of  knowing 
the  other  side. — Tokyo,  Nov.  16,  1914. 

This  reries  of  quotations  is  closed  with  the  following 
frank  statement  written  by  a  Japanese  of  international 
standing : 

I  am  indeed  sorry  to  say  that  a  strong  undercurrent 
of  anti-American  sentiment  is  flowing  in  Japan  and  it 
may  burst  out  at  any  opportunity.  It  is  not  simply  an 
effect  of  the  California  question,  but  the  more  powerful 
and  irritating  cause  lies  in  China.  Concession  after  con- 
cession made  to  America  by  China,  and  a  most  irritating 
one,  a  proposal  of  conceding  a  naval  station  for  America 
in  Fukien  (opposite  Formosa),  are  causing  suspicion  and 
resentment  against  America  to  grow  without  a  check. 

In  spite  of  all  this  outcry  against  America,  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  this  unfriendly  attitude 
is  characteristic  of  all  Japan.  Many  Japanese  recog- 
nize that  there  are  two  sides  to  the  immigration 


The  Japanese  Viewpoint  63 

problem.  They  willingly  admit  that  the  economic 
and  racial  questions  involved  offer  difficulties  that 
cannot  be  settled  in  any  offhand  way.  Unmoved  by 
the  popular  clamor  for  drastic  measures  they  are  seek- 
ing to  promote  a  better  understanding  of  the  real  issue 
involved  in  their  international  relations.  Some  of  these 
Japanese  leaders  are  moved  by  a  genuine  friendship 
for  America.  Others  have  at  heart  only  the  economic 
welfare  of  their  country.  But  whatever  their  motives 
they  believe  that  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  difficulty 
can  and  must  be  found. 

It  is  not  at  all  unusual  for  influential  Japanese  in 
their  discussions  of  the  American-Japanese  problem 
to  place  a  large  share  of  the  blame  upon  the  immigrants 
themselves.  Dr.  Soyeda  and  Mr.  Kamiya,  two  promi- 
nent Japanese  who  were  sent  to  America  to  investigate 
conditions  in  California  and  to  study  American  senti- 
ment, gave  this  advice  to  their  countrymen : 

There  is  much  to  be  done  by  the  Japanese  themselves 
both  in  America  and  at  home.  In  the  first  place  those 
who  are  already  in  the  States  must  strive  more  and  more 
for  assimilation  with  the  people  and  observance  of  the 
laws  and  customs  of  the  land.  They  must  work  stren- 
uously to  remedy  their  faults  and  do  nothing  to  startle 
and  irritate  the  people  with  whom  they  are  living.  Noth- 
ing must  be  done  which  would  furnish  material  for  at- 
tack, but  any  criticism,  if  well  founded  and  reasonable, 
must  be  welcomed 

A  part  of  the  unnecessary  expenses  incurred  by  the 
Japanese  for  clothes  and  food  might  far  better  be  used 
for  the  betterment  of  their  dwellings  and  sanitation. 


64  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Their  living  in  segregation  or  near  the  Chinese  and  fre- 
quenting Chinese  gambling  houses  must  be  stopped,  while 
more  church-going  and  rest  on  Sundays  should  be  en- 
couraged. Noisy  Buddhistic  rituals,  playing  of  saniiscns, 
keeping  of  tea-houses  which  arouse  opposition  and  afford 
room  for  criticism  might  better  be  avoided.  Studying  the 
language,  customs,  and  manners  of  the  Americans,  and 
closer  intercourse  especially  among  the  women  and  chil- 
dren will  go  far  towards  bringing  about  a  better  under- 
standing. A  better  use  of  savings  could  be  made  by 
means  of-  credit  associations,  and  opening  public  halls 
and  libraries  for  the  common  benefit  will  do  much  toward 
mental  and  moral  improvement.  Every  effort  must  be 
made  to  cast  off  the  old  undesirable  customs  and  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  new  environment,  so  far  as  it  is  re- 
quired by  decency  and  courtesy.1 

The  above  represents  an  attitude  toward  the  problem 
that  is  becoming  more  usual  among  well-informed 
Japanese.  Their  leaders  who  investigate  actual  con- 
ditions see  that  many  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  are 
more  or  less  uneducated  laborers  who  would  not  be 
regarded  as  desirable  associates  even  by  the  better  class 
of  Japanese  themselves.  Consequently,  while  they 
regret  the  prejudice  that  exists  against  their  people, 
they  do  not  condemn  the  Americans  wholesale  as  acting 
in  an  entirely  unreasonable  way.  One  of  Japan's 
leading  business  men,  Mr.  K.  Otani,  who  has  been  a 
frequent  visitor  to  America,  frankly  said : 

The  majority  of  Japanese  working  in  America  are 
without  education  and  cannot  adapt  themselves  to  the 

1  Soyeda,  J.,  and  Kamiya,  A  Survey  of  the  Japanese  Question 
in  California,  1913,  pp.  12-13. 


The  Japanese  Vietvpoint  65 

customs  of  their  new-  country.  They  cannot  associate 
on  equal  terms  with  their  new  friends.  Such  being  the 
case,  only  the  lowest  section  of  the  Japanese  are  being 
discriminated  against  or  excluded  in  America.  The  more 
respectable  classes  of  Japanese  are  well  treated  and  re- 
spected by  the  Americans.  It  is  a  striking  illustration  of 
this  fact  that  there  has  been  no  anti-Japanese  movement 
in  Chicago  or  New  York.  In  California  and  other  Pacific 
coast  states  only  has  unfriendliness  been  shown  toward 
our  people.  This  is  because  many  Japanese  in  those  re- 
gions are  unworthy.1 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  articles  of  this  nature  are 
found  not  only  in  books  intended  for  American  readers, 
but  are  quite  frequently  published  in  Japanese  periodi- 
cals. When  a  Japanese  who  has  traveled  in  America 
returns  to  Japan,  the  question  upon  which  he  is  asked 
to  talk  and  write  most  frequently  is  the  condition  of 
the  Japanese  immigrants.  Usually  these  reports 
frankly  recognize  the  harm  that  is  being  done  Japan's 
reputation  by  the  large  number  of  low-class  Japanese 
in  California.  They  admit  that  the  indiscriminate 
immigration  in  the  past  was  a  serious  mistake  and  they 
urge  the  Japanese  government  to  send  worthy  men  to 
America  who  will  be  a  credit  to  their  country. 

Some  influential  Japanese  writers  are  taking  the 
viewpoint  that  the  problem  can  be  settled  best  in  a 
peaceful  way  and  that  upon  the  Japanese  in  America 
rests  a  large  share  of  the  responsibility  of  bringing  this 
about.  Dr.  Ukita,  in  an  article  in  the  Taiyo,  May, 
1913,  said  that  the  right  of  naturalization  which  the 

1  Japan's  Message  to  America,  p.  62. 


66  The  Japanese  Ini'asion 

Japanese  are  demanding  can  best  be  gained  if  the  Japa- 
nese immigrants  will  give  due  regard  to  the  following 
points :  ( I )  They  must  resolve  to  reside  permanently 
in  America.  (2)  They  must  not  segregate  themselves 
in  separate  communities,  but  must  associate  with  the 
Americans  freely.  (3)  They  must  try  to  adopt  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Americans.  (4)  They 
must  have  high  regard  for  the  American  form  of 
government.  (5)  They  must  endeavor  to  become 
faithful  and  loyal  Americans. 

This  aspect  of  the  problem,  however,  has  not  as  yet 
been  emphasized  sufficiently  to  modify  to  any  great 
extent  the  attitude  of  the  Japanese  people.  In  general 
they  simply  regard  the  discrimination  against  their 
immigrants  as  a  reflection  upon  their  national  honor, 
without  giving  due  consideration  to  all  the  different 
factors  involved.  The  racial  and  national  aspects  of 
the  problem  are  the  only  ones  they  are  willing  to  see. 
America,  they  believe,  has  treated  their  nation  unjustly. 
The  first  and  important  thing  to  be  insisted  upon  is 
their  rights,  and  as  long  as  these  are  being  disregarded 
they  are  in  no  mood  to  consider  the  whole  situation 
calmly.  The  present  view  of  many  intelligent  Japanese 
is  thus  summed  up  by  Dr.  S.  Suyehiro,  professor  in  the 
law  school  of  Kyoto  Imperial  University: 

In  this  condition  of  affairs  it  is  only  a  question  of 
time  when  our  people  in  California  will  be  entirely  wiped 
out,  with  which  the  anti-Japanese  elements  in  the  state 
should  be  contented.  But  far  from  that  they  want  to 
destroy  Japanese  industry  there  as  quickly  as  possible; 


The  Japanese  Viewpoint  67 

hence  the  enactment  of  the  Alien  Land  Law.  Further, 
there  are  rumors  that  a  bill  for  depriving  us  of  our  right 
of  leasing  agricultural  land  will  be  introduced  to  the 
state  legislature  next  year.  They  have  already  smitten 
us  on  our  right  cheek ;  now  they  seem  to  demand  of  us 
to  turn  our  left  to  them.  What  would  America  do  if 
she  were  Japan?  Would  she  endure  all  this  discrimi- 
nation and  humiliation  without  a  murmur?  I  for  one  do 
not  think  that  the  self-assertive  Americans  would  submit 
to  such  treatment  as  we  are  receiving  at  their  hands. 

We  are  a  peace-loving  nation.  Our  endurance  has 
stood  the  successive  tests  of  the  Manchurian  railway 
question,  the  school  affair,  the  immigration  flurry,  the 
California  land  law  dispute ;  it  will  stand  more  because 
we  are  bent  on  the  maintenance  of  peace.  But  with  a 
view  to  a  speedy  and  amicable  settlement  of  the  out- 
standing complication,  we  claim  that  America  accede  to 
one  of  the  two  alternatives  —  the  granting  of  the  right 
of  naturalization  to  the  Japanese,  or  the  conclusion  of 
a  treaty  to  guarantee  their  rights  of  owning  land  or  of 
leasing  farms.  I  venture  to  say  this  is  no  extravagant 
claim.  Justice  demands  that  America  shall  treat  the  Jap- 
anese on  equal  terms  with  European  immigrants,  since 
she  has  permitted  the  former  to  enter  and  live  on  her 
land.  If  it  is  a  question  of  granting  such  rights  to  mil- 
lions of  Japanese,  it  may  be  too  serious  for  America  to 
consent ;  but  it  is  a  matter  that  involves  only  90,000  res- 
idents. Is  she  still  reluctant  to  comply  with  our  claim? 
If  she  rejects  it,  I  am  afraid  that  the  day  will  come  when 
our  friendship  toward  her  shall  cease.1 

1  Japan's  Message  to  America,  pp.  68-69.  A  similar  view  was 
expressed  in  an  editorial  on  the  Japanese-American  problem  in 
Kahoku  Shimpo,  Sendai,  Dec.  6,  1914.  Mr.  Oshikawa  in  the 
Michi,  Dec.,  1914,  says  that  "  for  a  solution  of  the  American  prob- 
lem we  must  not  depend  upon  diplomacy  but  upon  the  actual 
power  of  the  country/' 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   JAPANESE   "  MENACE  " 

A  NY  attempt  to  interpret  the  present  status  of 
•**•  American  public  opinion  toward  the  Japanese 
must  give  due  recognition  to  the  fact  that  no  unanimity 
of  opinion  exists.  America  is  not  a  united  nation  with 
a  sufficiently  fixed  national  policy  to  dominate  the 
whole  country.  In  regard  to  most  of  our  national 
problems  there  are  sectional  differences  of  opinion 
which  are  likely  to  render  national  policies  unstable. 
Consequently,  the  sweeping  statements  that  are  so 
frequently  made  regarding  America's  friendliness  for 
or  hostility  toward  the  Japanese  are  entirely  mislead- 
ing to  both  parties  concerned.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
public  opinion  in  different  localities  varies  from  open 
hostility  to  admiration,  depending  upon  the  nature  of 
the  contact  with  the  Japanese  and  also  upon  what  is 
known  about  them  through  the  various  sources  of 
information.  Moreover,  it  is  also  true  that  widely 
divergent  attitudes  may  be  found  in  the  same  com- 
munity or  even  in  the  same  individual.  Thus  admira- 
tion and  fear  are  frequently  found  side  by  side.  It  is 
often  difficult  to  decide  which  is  our  predominating 
attitude  until  something  happens  to  bring  our  latent 
feelings  to  the  surface. 

Americans  who  have  returned  home  after  a  long 

68 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  69 

residence  in  Japan  have  sometimes  experienced  a  revul- 
sion of  feeling  against  Japanese  residing  in  the  West. 
While  in  Japan,  the  Japanese  peculiarities  never  struck 
their  attention  because  they  were  the  common  thing, 
but  here  they  diverge  so  much  from  the  usual  type  that 
they  seem  objectionable.  Even  missionaries,  noted  for 
their  kindly  feelings  for  the  Japanese,  have  confessed 
that  it  is  difficult  for  them  to  maintain  this  same  atti- 
tude toward  the  Japanese  whom  they  chance  to  meet 
while  home  on  furlough.  Prestige  and  prejudice  are 
in  fact  not  far  apart.  One  attitude  sometimes  gives 
way  to  the  other  even  when  changes  in  the  situation 
do  not  seem  sufficient  to  justify  it.  It  is  the  existence 
of  these  divergent  and  contradictory  attitudes  that 
complicates  our  Japanese  problem  and  makes  it  so 
difficult  for  the  American  people  to  be  consistent  in 
their  treatment  of  the  Japanese. 

These  divergent  attitudes  can  be  accounted  for  only 
by  the  fact  that  the  presence  of  the  Japanese  constitutes 
a  race  problem  which  brings  in  all  the  conflicting  emo- 
tions involved  in  race  prejudice.  The  Japanese  show 
such  wide  variations  from  our  ways  of  appearing  and 
acting  that  our  elemental  feelings  of  antipathy  are 
aroused  against  them.  This  makes  an  inevitable  con- 
flict in  our  minds  when  we  attempt  to  judge  them  fairly 
according  to  their  merits,  and  as  a  result  inconsistencies 
appear  in  our  dealings  with  them.  How  this  comes 
about  is  made  clear  by  Bailey's  analysis  of  race  preju- 
dice, which  he  classifies  into  race  enmity,  race  pride,  and 
race  conscience.  Race  enmity,  he  says,  is  found  chiefly 


70  The  Japanese  Invasion 

among  those  in  economic  competition  with  the  opposing 
race  on  the  lower  levels;  race  pride  is  more  social  and 
aesthetic  and  is  a  loyalty  to  race  traditions  which  seem 
to  be  endangered  by  the  encroachments  of  outsiders; 
race  conscience  appears  on  a  still  higher  level,  and 
while  recognizing  the  existence  of  different  racial  types 
estimates  them  from  a  more  scientific  and  humani- 
tarian point  of  view.  The  feeling  tones  that  accompany 
these  three  attitudes  he  designates  as  "  anger,  fear,  and 
love;  or  putting  them  into  the  language  of  attitudes 
we  might  call  them  'hate,  anxiety-obsession,  and 
benevolent  kindliness/  "l  A  study  of  American  public 
opinion  regarding  the  Japanese  reveals  the  existence 
of  these  three  well-defined  attitudes  around  which  may 
be  grouped  our  discussion  of  the  problem  from  the 
American  viewpoint. 

Without  doubt,  there  exists  among  many  Americans 
a  feeling  of  genuine  friendliness  for  the  Japanese.  The 
attitudes  of  antipathy  and  distrust,  which  are  more  or 
less  widespread,  must  by  no  means  be  regarded  as 
shared  by  all  the  people  in  America.  It  is  very  easy, 
in  fact,  to  get  an  exaggerated  view  of  the  opposition 
to  the  Japanese,  because  stories  dealing  with  that  phase 
of  the  question  make  better  news  than  facts  expressive 
of  our  friendliness,  and  consequently  get  wider  pub- 
licity. This  attitude  of  friendliness  and  good  will  is 
based  partly  on  our  former  tendency  to  idealize  the 
Japanese,  a  fact  which  has  already  been  mentioned. 

1  Bailey,  T.  P.,  Race  Orthodoxy  in  the  South,  p.  47.  Neale 
Pub.  Co. 


The  Japanese  "Menace  'J  71 

The  novelties  of  their  civilization  and  their  great  eager- 
ness to  acquire  our  culture  aroused  a  deep  interest  in 
their  welfare.  Their  later  victories  on  land  and  sea 
and  their  success  in  organizing  their  nation  along 
modern  lines  have  caused  many  to  think  highly  of 
their  ability  and  greatness.  In  American  periodicals 
have  appeared  numerous  articles  on  Japan  in  which 
such  statements  as  the  following  were  made : 

Japan  is  today  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  and  highly 
organized  countries  in  the  world;  it  is  doubtful  if  there 
is  in  any  other  country  such  unanimity  of  opinion,  such 
passionate  devotion  to  the  ruler,  such  eagerness  to  die 
for  the  sake  of  the  country.1 

While  the  Japanese  stand  on  the  same  general  plane 
of  culture  as  the  peoples  of  Europe. and  North  America, 
they  are  distinct  rivals  with  them  for  preeminence  on 
that  plane,  by  reason  of  the  number  of  points  wherein 
they  are  demonstrably  supreme.2 

It  is  difficult  to  take  in  the  moral  greatness  of  the 
Japanese  whose  Imperial  line  has  never  been  broken ; 
whose  family  life  persists  through  centuries;  whose 
heroes,  men  and  women,  show  a  spirit  of  sacrifice  that 
is  the  very  key  to  the  highest  moral  life;  and  whose 
virtues  are  so  virile  that  they  can  appropriate  within  the 
narrow  limits  of  one  generation  all  the  great  liberties 
of  our  modern  civilization  and  all  the  humanity  that  is 
embodied  in  the  world-wide  Red  Cross  society.3 

1  Editorial,  the  Outlook,  June  4,  1904. 

2  Buckley,  E.,  "  The  Japanese  as  Peers  of  Western  People," 
Amer.  Journ.  Soc.,  Nov.,  1905,  p.  327. 

3  De  Forest,  J.  H.,  "  Moral  Greatness  of  the  Japanese  People," 
the  Independent,  July  9,  1908,  p.  87. 


72  The  Japanese  Invasion 

It  is  very  natural  that  those  who  share  views  similar 
to  these  should  be  very  indignant  at  the  opposition 
shown  to  the  Japanese  immigrants  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
In  their  eyes  it  is  not  only  an  insult  to  a  great  nation 
but  it  is  a  shortsighted  policy  to  exclude  the  Japanese, 
who  seem  more  likely  to  make  a  better  contribution  to 
our  country  than  do  the  immigrants  from  southern 
Europe.  The  efficiency  of  Japanese  laborers,  their 
adaptability  to  new  surroundings,  and  their  efforts  to 
conform  to  American  dress  and  customs,  are  pointed 
out  as  qualities  which  prove  their  fitness  for  American 
life.  It  is  held,  furthermore,  that  the  West  as  well 
as  the  East  will  profit  by  the  mingling  of  the  two  civil- 
izations. Our  dislike  of  the  Orient,  they  claim,  is  based 
upon  our  ignorance.  A  more  careful  study  of  oriental 
culture  would  deepen  our  appreciation  and  put  to  shame 
our  spirit  of  intolerance. 

Ever  since  the  rise  of  the  Japanese  problem  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  Japanese  have  not  lacked  for  champions 
among  intelligent  Americans,  who,  moved  both  by  a 
sense  of  justice  and  by  a  genuine  admiration  for  this 
oriental  nation,  have  tried  to  overcome  the  opposition 
against  them.  The  desire  to  treat  Japan  in  a  just  and 
friendly  manner  has  always  been  the  attitude  of  our 
Federal  government.  Even  when  the  differences  be- 
tween the  two  countries  seemed  most  difficult  to  adjust, 
this  friendly  attitude  has  been  maintained. 

An  incident  related  in  a  recent  address  in  Chicago 
by  Dr.  Edward  A.  Steiner  well  illustrates  the  policy 
of  our  government.  During  the  long  negotiations 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  73 

between  the  two  governments  regarding  the  California 
Alien  Land  Bill,  Secretary  Bryan  and  Ambassador 
Chinda  had  many  consultations  in  regard  to  the  best 
means  of  adjusting  the  difficulty.  In  the  course  of 
one  particularly  unsatisfactory  conference,  Viscount 
Chinda  abruptly  arose  to  leave,  and  said :  "  Is  this  the 
last  word  America  has  to  say  about  the  matter?"  If 
Bryan's  answer  had  been  "yes,"  diplomatic  negotiations 
would  likely  have  been  broken  off  and  serious  conse- 
quences might  have  occurred.  The  situation,  however, 
was  saved  by  Bryan's  more  tactful  reply,  "  There  is  no 
last  word  between  friends."1  Further  negotiations 
were  resumed  and  the  matter  was  temporarily  adjusted 
upon  the  basis  of  friendship. 

The  present  attitude  of  our  government  toward 
Japan  is  well  expressed  in  this  sentence  from  a  letter 
written  by  President  Wilson  to  Dr.  Shailer  Mathews 
on  December  14,  1914: 

That  the  feeling  of  our  government  toward  Japan  is 
one  of  genuine  friendship,  I  think  you  believe  as  strongly 
as  I  do,  and  any  message  of  friendship  and  cooperation 
and  mutual  good  will  is  undoubtedly  from  the  American 
people  themselves.2 

This  feeling  of  friendliness  and  good  will  toward  the 
Japanese  can  be  found  even  in  California,  the  strong- 
hold of  anti-Japanese  sentiment.  There  is  a  disposition 

1  To  commemorate  this  incident  Mr.  Bryan  has  had  a  bayonet 
made  into  a  paper  weight  in  the  shape  of  a  small  plow  on  which 
are  inscribed  the  above  words. 

2  The  Friendship  of  America  for  Japan,  p.  32. 


74  The  /a/v  turasion 

on  the  part  of  some  of  its  citizens  to  give  due  recog- 
nition to  the  part  the  Japanese  are  taking  in  developing 
the  resources  of  that  state.  Their  patience  and  skill 
in  turning  barren  wastes  into  fruitful  fields  are  com- 
mended. Miss  Alice  M.  Brown,  of  Florin,  California, 
in  describing  the  work  of  the  Japanese  in  her  com- 
munity, said: 

By  their  sheer  pluck  and  wonderful  industry  they 
have  changed  the  whole  face  of  the  land  from  barren, 
unfertile  fields  to  the  fairest  of  vineyards  and  straw- 
berry patches.  And  to  do  so  they  had  to  face  tremen- 
dous obstacles  which  the  white  man  never  would  have 
surmounted.  Beginning  with  no  capital  they  make  the 
place  pay  for  itself.  They  know  how  to  live  within 
their  means,  to  live  frugally,  but  when  they  are  on  their 
feet  and  their  home  is  paid  for,  they  spend  for  the 
American  food  and  comfort  for  which  they  yearn. 

They  are  crowding  no  one  out  of  the  land  by  their 
industry;  that  very  land  would  be  lying  bare  and  idle 
if  they  did  not  occupy  it.  The  whites  spurned  it  for 
thirty  years  and  they  are  no  more  ambitious  today. 
They  want  better  land,  which  does  not  entail  such  con- 
stant, ceaseless  effort  to  wring  a  profit  from  it.  There 
is  always  a  class  who  are  jealous  of  anyone  who  works 
and  prospers,  and  because  of  the  peaceable,  humble  dis- 
position of  these  people  they  are  doubly  bold  in  their 
attacks  upon  them.  It  is  the  dog  in  the  manger  atti- 
tude. There  is  plenty  of  room  in  this  great  state  for 
all  who  want  land  and  who  want  to  work.  We  are  no 
overpopulated  country  like  Belgium  or  Japan.  We  want 
people  here  who  will  till  our  s^il  and  make  our  lands 
blossom  with  fruit  fulness.  They  are  a  tremendous  asset 
to  the  community  and  the  state,  and  if  it  were  not  for 


The  Japanese  "Menace  ''  75 

the  racial  bias  that  darkens  and  poisons  the  mind,  they 
would  be  thrice  welcome. 

The  Japanese  are  peaceable,  law-abiding,  tirelessly  in- 
dustrious, home-keeping,  moral,  temperate,  grateful,  and 
generous.  They  require  no  policing,  there  are  no  dis- 
turbances; no  woman  has  ever  been  molested.  That  is 
a  fit  test  for  their  worthiness  as  a  people.  What  other 
alien  race  has  such  a  record  ? * 

While  such  sentiments  as  these  seem  to  be  shared 
by  only  a  small  minority  in  California,  there  is  an 
increasing  tendency  to  admit  the  usefulness  and  effi- 
ciency of  the  Japanese  in  agriculture.  Even  those 
opposed  to  them  on  grounds  of  race  admire  the  skill 
with  which  the  Japanese  farmers  have  reclaimed  bar- 
ren lands  and  thus  added  to  the  wealth  of  the  state. 
Without  doubt  the  Japanese  have  made  a  secure  place 
for  themselves  in  the  fruit  industry  in  certain  sections 
of  the  Far  West,  and  since  the  fear  of  a  large  increase 
in  numbers  has  been  removed,  the  more  intelligent 
Americans  do  not  resent  their  presence  as  much  as 
was  the  case  in  the  past. 

The  attitude  of  some  of  the  leaders  in  educational 
circles  in  California  is  shown  by  the  following  state- 
ment regarding  America's  relations  with  Japan  issued 
in  1914  by  the  presidents  and  deans  of  the  various 
colleges  and  universities  of  southern  California: 

In  view  of  the  recent  events  which  have  tended  to 
bring  regret  and  distress  to  those  persons  who  have 
cherished  deeply  the  historic  friendship  between  the 

1  Brown,  Alice  M.,  Education  —  Not  Legislation,  p.  4. 


76  The  Japanese  Invasion 

United  States  and  Japan,  and  in  view  of  the  popular 
impression  that  a  feeling  of  international  ill  will  has  its 
special  source  on  our  western  coast  and  particularly  in 
the  state  of  California,  the  undersigned  take  the  liberty 
of  making  public  the  following  statement: 

As  American  citizens  and  residents  of  California,  \\< 
wish  to  express  our  deep  conviction  that  the  manifesta- 
tion of  genuine  good  will,  happily  characteristic  of  our 
relations  with  Japan,  has  been  one  of  the  most  fortunate 
experiences  of  our  whole  international  history.  And, 
notwithstanding  all  appearances  to  the  contrary,  we  be- 
lieve that  an  appreciation  of  the  great  benefits  accruing 
to  both  nations  by  reason  of  this  friendship  is  firmly 
established  among  the  thoughtful  people  of  our  coast  and 
is  rightfully  a  source  of  confident  expectation  that  this 
friendship  is  permanently  to  continue. 

In  this  connection  we  desire  not  only  to  assert  our 
strong  opposition  to  any  additional  anti-alien  legislation 
....  but  we  are  also  opposed  to  any  and  all  anti-alien 
legislation  of  whatever  sort,  which  is  discriminating  in 
character,  desiring  only  to  preserve  to  each  country  in 
friendliest  fashion  those  best  elements  of  national  per- 
sonality which  shall  ultimately  be  of  the  largest  mutual 
advantage.  In  this,  also,  we  believe  we  are  voicing  the 
thoughtful  citizenship  of  our  state. 

Many  of  those  most  interested  in  the  promotion  of 
good  will  toward  Japan  feel  that  a  campaign  of  educa- 
tion is  necessary  in  order  to  overcome  existing  suspi- 
cions and  prejudices.  The  most  recent  important  effort 
to  this  end  was  the  establishment  by  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America1  of  a  Com- 

1  This  Council  represents  thirty  different  denominations.  The 
number  of  local  churches  in  these  denominations  is  about  136,000 
and  the  membership  17,000,000. 


The  Japanese  "Menace  J:  77 

mission  on  Relations  with  Japan.  This  commission, 
in  addition  to  its  study  of  the  problem  of  the  relations 
of  the  two  countries,  appointed  Dr.  Shailer  Mathews 
and  Dr.  Sidney  L.  Gulick  — 

....  to  serve  as  a  Christian  Embassy  to  carry  to  the 
Christians  of  this  land  (Japan)  the  greetings  of  the 
Christians  of  America  and  the  assurances  that,  in  spite 
of  certain  appearances  to  the  contrary,  the  real  attitude 
of  America  as  a  whole  is  that  of  continued  good  will.1 

This  "  Christian  Embassy "  made  an  extended  trip 
through  Japan  during  February,  1915,  and  addressed 
large  audiences  in  a  number  of  the  leading  cities.  The 
Japanese  press  gave  their  speeches  wide  publicity  and 
in  general  commented  favorably  upon  their  efforts  to 
convince  the  Japanese  that  a  vast  majority  of  the 
American  people  were  not  in  sympathy  with  the  anti- 
Japanese  movement.  After  their  return  to  America 
a  similar  campaign  was  carried  on  in  this  country  for 
the  purpose  of  developing  a  public  opinion  more  favor- 
ably disposed  toward  the  Japanese  people. 

That  it  was  felt  necessary  to  send  this  "  Christian 
Embassy  "  to  Japan  with  its  message  of  good  will  bears 
witness  to  the  existence  of  misunderstandings  and  feel- 
ings of  dislike  which  at  times  have  threatened  to  rup- 
ture the  friendship  of  the  two  nations.  As  would  be 
expected,  this  attitude  of  hostility  and  antipathy  mani- 
fests itself  particularly  in  those  sections  of  the  West 
where  the  Japanese  have  settled  in  the  largest  numbers. 

For  the. past  ten  years  or  more  the  Calif ornians  have 

1  The  Friendship  of  America  for  Japan,  p.  3. 


78  The  Japanese  Invasion 

felt  that  the  Japanese  were  a  menace  to  their  welfare 
It  was  their  violent  protest  against  the  coming  of  Jap- 
anese immigrants  that  brought  the  problem  to  the 
attention  of  the  American  public.  Through  their  per- 
sistence and  determination  the  inertia  and  indifference 
of  the  eastern  states  have  been  overcome  and  a  public 
opinion  formed  that  demands  the  exclusion  of  tin- 
Japanese.  In  order  to  gain  their  point  the  Calif ornians 
marshaled  every  possible  argument  and  appealed  espe- 
cially to  the  latent  prejudice  that  the  West  has  for  the 
Far  East.  A  California  editor  wrote: 

Do  the  American  people  realize  that  they  are  now 
facing  on  our  Pacific  frontier  what  may  easily  become 
the  most  significant  crisis  which  the  western  world  has 
confronted  since  Thermopylae  —  a  question  not  of  policy 
or  prosperity  or  progress,  but  of  existence? 

Nothing  can  keep  our  Pacific  coast  essentially  a  white 
man's  country  except  our  continual  determination  to  keep 

it  so It  is  a  question  on  which  a  blunder  once  made 

can  never  be  rectified.  The  frontier  of  the  white  man's 
world  must  be  established  some  day,  somewhere.  Un- 
less this  generation  establishes  it  at  the  Pacific  coast  no 
future  generation  will  ever  have  the  chance  to  establish 
it  so  far  west,  or  to  maintain  it  anywhere,  except  by  war 
and  permanent  lines  of  garrisoned  fortresses.  The  prob- 
lem is  ours  in  the  next  few  years  in  California,  Wash- 
ington, Oregon,  and  in  the  Capitol  and  White  House. 
The  consequences  are  the  whole  world's,  everywhere, 
forever 

Asia  has  found  us  out,  too,  and  the  flood  from  the 
Orient  has  started.  Nothing  can  stop  it  unless  we  do. 
We  did  stop  it  from  China  because  China  was  helpless, 
but  that  helplessness  will  not  last  long.  It  has  been 


The  Japanese  "Menace  "  79 

checked  from  Japan  by  the  grace  of  Japan,  but  that 
grace  may  not  last  long.  And  we  may  stop  it  from 
India  because  we  do  not  have  to  deal  with  India  about 
it.  But  the  reservoir  that  is  tapped  is  limitless.  Lit- 
erally hundreds  of  millions  of  brown  men,  yellow  men, 
and  bronze  men  would  now  like  to  come  to  America  for 
the  same  reasons  that  the  Europeans  wanted  to  come; 
for  they  will  come,  just  as  the  Europeans  have  come, 
if  they  are  equally  free  to  do  so.  And  then  —  the  deluge. 
The  worst  of  it  is  that,  temporarily  and  economically, 
we  need  them,  and  therefore  some  of  our  shortsighted 
capitalists  desire  them.  It  is  a  fair  and  empty  land  that 
awaits  development,  and  it  is  capable  of  being  exploited 
far  more  rapidly  than  the  white  man  alone  can  do  it. 
Industrially,  the  West  can  be  full-grown  in  one  gener- 
ation, if  we  will  permit  it,  but  not  by  the  labor  of  all 
the  white  men  it  can  get.  The  West  can  absorb  men 
faster  than  white  men  are  consenting  to  come.  A  de- 
liberate dog-in-the-manger  policy  is  the  only  way  to  re- 
serve for  future  generations  of  our  race  the  resources 
which  we  have  not  time  nor  men  to  develop  ourselves.1 

In  the  opinion  of  many  people  on  the  Pacific  coast,  a 
resolute  stand  must  be  taken  in  order  to  repel  a  possible 
yellow  invasion.  They  feel  that  the  coming  of  the 
Oriental,  whether  Chinese  or  Japanese,  endangers  their 
institutions.  It  is  assumed  that  no  matter  how  long 
the  Japanese  may  reside  in  America  they  can  never  be 
assimilated.2 

On  the  other  hand,  some  Californians  deny  that  their 
opposition  to  the  Japanese  is  a  matter  of  race  prejudice. 

1  Rowell,  C  H.,  "  Orientphobia,"  Collier's,  Feb.  6,  1909,  P-  13. 

2  Woehlke,  W.  V.,  "  Two  Aspects  of  the  Japanese  Problem," 
the  Outlook,  105 :  480. 


8o  The  Japanese  Invasion 

They  place  it  frankly  upon  economic  grounds,  claiming 
that  the  white  man  cannot  compete  successfully  with 
Orientals  without  lowering  his  standard  of  living. 
Thus  a  writer  in  Sunset  said : 

California's  opposition  is  not  because  of  race-hatred  — 
there  is  no  racial  problem  involved  in  the  determination 
to  eliminate  the  Japanese  from  economic  consideration. 
Candidly,  California  acknowledges  that  Japanese  given 
free  rein  within  her  borders  would  become  commercial 
competitors  against  whom  the  white  man  could  not  hope 
to  struggle  successfully,  for  the  Japanese,  through  sacri- 
ficial effort,  are  capable  of  accomplishing  greater  results 
than  the  white  man,  ever  eager  for  his  own  personal 
pleasures  and  comforts.  One  is  willing  to  work,  work, 
work;  the  other  insists  upon  varying  his  industry  with 
a  little  honk-honking  along  the  highway  of  joy.  One 
will  pillow  his  head  upon  a  rock,  if  need  be,  and  rest 
content ;  the  other  insists  upon  the  maintenance  of  a 
standard  which  refuses  the  rock.  Tokyo  may  assert 
that  her  national  pride  has  been  pricked,  but  neverthe- 
less she  knows  that  the  real  cause  of  the  tempest  is  that 
her  subjects  figuratively  have  been  picking  California's 
pockets  of  profits  and  rapidly  are  attaining  complete 
mastery  of  the  communities  in  which  they  have  set- 
tled.1 

Without  doubt,  both  economic  and  racial  factors 
are  involved  in  the  Japanese  problem.  It  is  impossible 
to  find  a  single  isolated  cause  of  all  the  friction  that 
exists.  Viewed  in  its  larger  aspect,  it  is  the  meeting 
of  the  widely  different  civilizations  of  the  East  and 
the  West,  with  all  of  its  disturbing  effect  upon  our 

1  Dunn,  A.,  "  Keeping  the  Coast  Clear,"  Sunset,  31  :  124. 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  81 

labor  conditions  and  problems.  Difference  in  standards 
of  living  that  makes  competition  upon  equal  terms 
impossible,  fear  of  being  overwhelmed  by  numbers, 
differences  in  customs,  language,  and  physical  appear- 
ance, the  ambition  of  the  Japanese,  which  unfits  them 
for  servile  positions  —  all  these  have  in  some  measure 
contributed  to  the  unpopularity  of  the  Japanese  in  our 
western  states. 

Not  every  part  of  the  West  shares  equally  this  feel- 
ing of  dislike.  Southern  California  looks  upon  the 
Japanese  with  far  more  tolerance  than  does  northern 
California.  While  anti- Japanese  feeling  exists  in  both  ' 
Washington  and  Oregon,  neither  of  these  states*  has 
followed  California's  example  in  the  matter  of  radical 
anti-Japanese  legislation.  Fruit  growers  and  other 
employers  of  labor  are  often  favorably  inclined  toward 
the  Japanese  workmen.1  Many  sincerely  believe  that 
the  Japanese  are  the  best  solution  of  the  seasonal  labor 
problem  in  the  West,  and  protests  are  frequently  made 
by  large  employers  against  the  policy  of  shutting  off 
such  a  valuable  source  of  labor  supply. 

But  the  voices  raised  in  favor  of  the  Japanese  are 
not  able  to  drown  the  clamor  for  their  continued  exclu- 
sion and  for  the  restriction  of  their  opportunities.  In 
many  localities  the  Japanese  are  regarded  as  unfit  to 
associate  with  Americans.  There  is  in  most  western 
cities  a  strong  feeling  against  permitting  even  wealthy 
Japanese  to  live  in  good  resident  sections.  The  Jap- 

iBramhall,  J.  T.,  "The  Orient  in  California,"  the  World 
Today,  20 : 464. 


82  The  Japanese  Invasion 

anese  Consul  General  at  San  Francisco,  a  well-educated 
and  cultured  gentleman,  rented  a  house  in  one  of  the 
fashionable  sections  of  the  city.  His  neighbors  strongly 
resented  his  presence,  and  it  was  only  after  consider- 
able negotiations  that  their  objections  were  withdrawn. 
The  high-salaried  representatives  of  some  of  the  largest 
banks  and  business  houses  in  Japan  receive  similar 
treatment  if  they  attempt  to  live  among  Americans 
who  are  their  equals  in  education  and  income.  When 
one  of  these  managers  rented  a  house  in  Berkeley,  the 
people  threatened  the  provision  dealers  with  boycott 
if  they  dared  to  sell  him  any  food.  Shima,  a  wealthy 
ranch  owner,  known  as  the  "  Potato  King/'  purchased 
a  home  in  a  fashionable  part  of  Berkeley,  furnished 
it  in  good  style,  employed  a  large  number  of  servants, 
and  prepared  to  live  as  befitted  a  man  of  his  means. 
Indignation  was  at  once  aroused  in  the  city,  and  the 
newspapers  published  insulting  articles  referring  to  the 
yellow  peril  in  the  college  town.1  In  university  circles 
like  Berkeley,  Palo  Alto,  and  Los  Angeles,  American 
families  as  a  rule  refuse  to  rent  rooms  to  Japanese  stu- 
dents. In  Los  Angeles  the  prejudice  against  the  Jap- 
anese made  it  impossible  for  the  Japanese  students'  club 
to  purchase  a  desirable  site  on  which  to  build  a  club- 
house. 

This  antipathy  to  the  Japanese  extends  even  to  reli- 
gious circles.  In  California,  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  will  not  give  the  Japanese  the  ri^ht 
of  full  membership.  As  a  rule,  they  are  permitted  to 

1  Asia  at  the  Door,  pp.  147-50. 


The  Japanese  "Menace  "  83 

attend  the  English  classes  and  religious  meetings,  but 
are  denied  the  use  of  the  gymnasium,  swimming  tank, 
and  athletic  field.  Fraternal  orders  and  trade  unions 
are  not  open  to  the  Japanese,  and  as  far  as  possible  they 
are  kept  out  of  the  skilled  trades.1  This  attitude  of 
opposition  to  the  Japanese  has  been  manifested  in  the 
attempt  to  keep  their  children  out  of  the  public  schools 
in  San  Francisco,  in  the  passage  of  the  alien  land  bill, 
and  in  the  introduction  of  other  measures  designed  to 
limit  the  opportunities  of  Japanese  laborers  in  Cali- 
fornia.2 The  public  press  has  thrown  its  influence 
upon  the  side  of  the  anti-Japanese  agitation  and  by  its 
inflammatory  articles  has  done  much  to  keep  the 
problem  before  the  attention  of  the  public. 

This  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  Japanese 
question  makes  the  people  more  open  to  suggestion, 
and  so  the  wildest  stories  about  Japan's  designs  are 
circulated  widely  and  are  listened  to  in  all  seriousness, 
no  matter  how  widely  they  may  be  removed  from 
actual  facts.  Even  though  the  danger  of  an  influx  of 
a  horde  of  Japanese  laborers  has  not  existed  for  the 
past  ten  years,  yet  the  old  fear  seems  still  to  remain. 
The  coming  of  the  "  picture  brides  "  is  deplored  because 
it  means  the  birth  of  Japanese  children  who  will  grow 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Commission,  vol.  23,  p.  163. 

2  In  1913,  thirty-four  bills  of  this  kind  were  presented  to  the 
California   legislature.     They  provided   that   the   license    fee   of 
Japanese   fishermen   should   be   increased,   that   Japanese   school 
children  should  be  segregated,  that  liquor  licenses  should  not  be 
issued  to  Japanese,  that  Japanese   should  be   forbidden  to  use 
power  engines,  that  Japanese  should  not  be  allowed  to  employ 
white  women,  etc. —  Asia  at  the  Door,  pp.  161-62. 


84  The  Japanese  Invasion 

up  as  American  citizens.  If  it  had  not  been  for  the 
fear  of  injuring  the  interests  of  the  Panama- Pad ik 
Exposition,  further  bills  against  the  Japanese  would 
probably  have  been  introduced  into  the  California 
legislature  during  its  session  in  1915.  The  opposition 
to  the  Japanese  in  California  may  almost  be  said  to 
have  assumed  a  pathological  form,  and  seems  to  have 
developed  a  phobia  that  is  contagious  and  which  does 
not  require  much  basis  in  fact  to  support  it. 

This  campaign  of  opposition  to  the  Japanese  has 
exerted  a  wider  influence  upon  the  public  opinion  of 
the  whole  country  than  is  generally  realized.  Mr. 
Holman,  in  speaking  of  California's  dislike  of  the 
Japanese,  said : 

Deeply  as  this  is  to  be  deplored,  it  is  less  regrettable 
than  the  fact  that  this  seemingly  localized  manifestation 
is  but  a  surface  symptom  of  a  deeper  and  more  wide- 
spread affection  which  concerns  not  merely  the  Pacific 
coast  region,  where  racial  antagonisms  are  freely  avowed, 
but  practically  our  entire  body  politic,  including  even 
eastern  centers  of  light  and  learning,  where  the  solidar- 
ity of  the  human  race  is  preached  and  the  spirit  of  uni- 
versal brotherhood  is  most  professed.  For  the  candid 
observer  must,  to  himself  at  least,  admit  that  an  obses- 
sion of  prejudice  against  men  of  the  black,  brown,  or 
yellow  races  marks  with  an  unfavorable  distinction  the 
American  people  above  those  of  any  other  nation,  despite 
all  our  boastful  pretension  of  belief  in  mankind's  dis- 
tinctless  equality  of  birth  and  nongainsayable  right  to  an 
impartiality  of  social  and  political  opportunity. 

It  is  doubtless  part  of  our  heritage  of  shame  from  cen- 
turies of  wrongdoing  toward  the  African  race,  and  its 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  85 

periodical  manifestations  will  involve  penitential  repara- 
tion for  uncounted  time  to  come. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  recognize  unblinkingly  that  this 
ungracious  and  mischief-making  spirit  exists,  and  in 
greater  or  less  degree  permeates  our  entire  people,  be- 
fore we  shall  be  able  either  to  foresee  its  portentous 
possibilities  for  evil  or  to  grapple  intelligently  with  the 
Herculean  task  of  formulating  remedies  even  appreciably 
adapted  to  the  outworking  of  its  cure.1 

It  seems  very  evident  that  the  past  ten  years  of  agita- 
tion against  the  Japanese  on  the  Pacific  coast,  together 
with  the  aggressive  policy  of  Japan  both  in  demanding 
its  rights  in  this  country  and  advancing  its  interests  in 
the  Far  East,  have  produced  an  undercurrent  of  oppo- 
sition that  comes  to  the  surface  upon  slight  provocation. 
In  a  recent  conversation  with  a  well-informed  Japanese 
official  in  America,  I  asked  him  why  his  government 
did  not  encourage  the  Japanese  living  in  California  to 
move  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  they  would 
be  made  more  welcome.  He  replied  that  this  was  a 
common  mistake  of  Americans,  who  took  it  for  granted 
that  the  anti-Japanese  spirit  was  limited  only  to  the  Far 
West,  and  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  any  settlement  of 
the  Japanese  in  mass  in  any  state  of  the  Union  would 
arouse  opposition. 

In  support  of  this  statement  he  cited  several  instances 
where  attempts  had  been  made  by  small  groups  of 
Japanese  farmers  to  establish  themselves  in  states 
where  there  had  been  no  indication  of  any  feeling 

1  Holman,  C.  V.f  "  Our  Insult  to  Japan,"  the  Arena,  37:11. 


86  The  Japanese  Invasion 

against  the  Japanese.  One  of  these  attempts  was  made 
in  1914  in  Michigan,  but  as  soon  as  it  became  known 
that  the  Japanese  were  trying  to  buy  land,  protests 
were  made  and  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  state 
legislature  similar  to  the  alien  land  law  of  California. 
Similar  efforts  were  made  by  Japanese  to  settle  in  rural 
communities  in  Florida  and  Louisiana,  and  in  both 
these  states  anti- Japanese  feeling  at  once  manifested 
itself.  In  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  this  agitation 
against  the  Japanese,  their  government  has  discouraged 
as  far  as  possible  all  migration  of  Japanese  laborers 
into  our  eastern  and  southern  states.  The  Japanese 
authorities  feel  that  it  is  wiser  to  localize  the  opposition 
in  the  West  and  not  allow  it  to  extend  over  the  whole 
country.  In  the  opinion  of  this  Japanese  official,  almost 
the  only  places  in  the  East  that  are  open  to  the  Jap- 
anese are  the  large  cities,  where  a  few  can  engage  in 
small  business  enterprises  or  do  domestic  work.  The 
four  hundred  Japanese  living  in  Chicago  are  scattered 
throughout  the  city,  and  as  they  have  established  no 
business  street,  as  have  the  Chinese,  their  presence  is 
but  little  noticed.  They  do,  however,  experience  diffi- 
culty sometimes  in  renting  rooms  and  apartments  in 
the  more  desirable  sections  of  the  city.  Only  last  year 
a  Japanese  student  and  his  wife,  because  of  the  pro- 
tests of  neighbors,  had  to  give  up  their  lease  of  an 
apartment  in  Hyde  Park  within  the  very  shadow  of 
the  University  of  Chicago.1 

1  Unmarried  students,  however,  find  no  difficulty  in  securing 
rooms.    The  Housing  Bureau  of  the  University  of  Chicago  states 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  87 

While  Japanese  students,  who  form  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  Japanese  population  in  the  eastern 
states,  are  given  a  warm  welcome  to  our  educational 
privileges,  they  are  made  to  feel  that  they  cannot  share 
fully  in  our  social  affairs.  In  response  to  inquiries 
made  in  a  number  of  our  colleges  and  universities,  it 
was  learned  that  there  was  a  strong  sentiment  against 
a  college  girl  appearing  alone  in  public  under  the  escort 
of  a  Japanese  man.  There  is  perfect  freedom  in  class 
parties  and  college  functions,  but  the  line  is  drawn  upon 
any  association  that  might  be  interpreted  as  a  personal 
attention  to  an  American  girl.  Even  in  communities 
where  there  seems  to  be  no  race  prejudice  against  the 
Japanese,  intermarriage  with  them  is  regarded  as 
highly  unfortunate. 

It  is,  however,  the  attitude  of  suspicion  rather  than 
dislike  that  seems  to  characterize  the  American  public 
in  general  today.  Japanese  aggressiveness  and  military 
preparedness,  the  frank  statements  in  a  portion  of  the 
Japanese  press  that  they  are  not  only  willing  to  fight 
us  but  regard  us  as  an  easy  opponent  to  crush,  and  the 
frequent  publication  in  our  newspapers  of  alleged  de- 
signs of  the  Japanese  upon  our  possessions  in  the 
Pacific  as  well  as  upon  our  Pacific  coast,  have  aroused 
a  rather  widespread  feeling  of  suspicion.  We  know 
that  they  are  an  ambitious  nation,  and  we  are  not  sure 
how  far  their  ambitions  will  lead  them  in  their  relations 

• 

that  American  families  usually  prefer  Japanese  students  because 
they  are  quieter  and  demand  fewer  privileges  than  do  other 
students. 


The  Japanese  Invasion 


with  us.  An  American  editorial  writer,  in  commenting 
on  American  nervousness  concerning  the  Japanese, 
said: 

If  the  Japanese  were  not  so  disciplined  in  politeness 
they  would  be  spilling  their  tea  all  over  Japan  in  merri- 
ment over  our  fidgets.  Our  apprehensions  are  not  only 
ludicrous  but  natural.  They  are  unescapable.  They  are 
the  tributes  paid  by  an  uncertain,  amiable,  unorganized 
nation  which  has  no  defined  intent,  to  a  resolute,  efficient, 
organized  nation  which  has  its  plans  clearly  outlined  and 
well  in  hand 

Our  imagination  puts  nothing  beyond  the  ability  of 
our  bland  friends.  The  Japanese  fishermen  and  the  Jap- 
anese schoolboys  may  be  brigadier  generals ;  a  tea  store 
may  be  the  headquarters  of  the  general  staff;  Japanese 
submarines  may  be  ready  for  assembling  down  in  the 
sand  dunes  by  Miller,  Ind. ;  Hawaii  may  contain  four 
army  corps,  and  Mexico  a  couple.1 

Efforts  of  the  Japanese  to  float  one  of  their  cruisers 
that  ran  aground  in  Turtle  Bay  were  construed  as  an 
attempt  to  fortify  a  naval  base  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
Upon  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  American  fleet 
to  Japan  a  few  years  ago,  it  was  predicted  that  our 
war  vessels  would  be  blown  up  in  Yokohama  harbor. 

In  a  recent  effort  to  find  out  the  real  attitude  of 
America  toward  Japan,  Dr.  Shailer  Mathews  and  Dr. 
S.  L.  Gulick  sent  out  to  representative  Americans  a 
questionaire  in  which  was  included  the  following  ques- 
tion :  "  What  is  the  ground  of  the  suspicion  of  Japan 
more  or  less  widespread  in  the  United  States  ?  "  Replies 

1  The  Chicago  Tribune,  April  15,  1915. 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  89 

were  received  from  more  than  sixty  men,  all  of  whom 
occupied  positions  of  responsibility  where  they  had  op- 
portunity to  be  familiar  with  public  opinion  throughout 
the  country.  The  following  quotations  from  their  letters 
will  indicate  the  different  views  that  were  expressed: 

There  is  suspicion  more  or  less  widespread  in  the 
United  States  that  the  Japanese  government  and  the 
Japanese  people  would  like  to  acquire  territory  some- 
where, and  that  she  may  be  looking  to  this  western  hemi- 
sphere for  such  an  outlet.  There  is  also  a  belief  that  the 
Japanese  government  some  years  ago  entered  upon  a 
campaign  of  educating  the  Japanese  people  in  the  belief 
that  a  war  with  the  United  States  was  imminent. 

The  ground  for  the  suspicion  of  Japan  more  or  less 
widespread  in  the  United  States  is  the  fear  of  the  expan- 
sion of  the  Japanese  population  on  the  American  conti- 
nent, which  expansion  of  population  would  inevitably 
result  in  Japanese  territorial  expansion. 

I  would  not  say  that  there  was  widespread  suspicion 
of  Japan  in  the  United  States.  I  would  rather  say  that 
there  was  a  large  amount  of  indifference  and  ignorance 
about  Japan.  Whatever  suspicion  there  is  probably  arises 
from  fear  of  mingling  with  eastern  races  and  from  the 
fear  by  labor  unions  of  competition. 

There  is  no  suspicion  of  Japan  in  the  United  States 
and  there  is  no  ground  of  suspicion  except  that  which 
may  be  created  within  a  small  circle  by  the  infamous 
yellow  journals,  or  the  labor  unions  of  the  country  who 
fear  the  introduction  of  coolie  labor.  If  such  is  to  be 
considered  a  ground  of  suspicion  it  is  wholly  an  economic 
ground  and  is  not  a  racial  prejudice  or  suspicion. 


90  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Whatever  suspicion  exists  is  based  upon  the  following: 
low  moral  standards;  their  aggressive  attitude  as  immi- 
grants in  this  country;  their  attempts  to  get  control  of 
strategic  positions  in  this  continent ;  the  militarism  which 
dominates  the  national  life;  the  detailed  preparedness  for 
the  recent  wars  they  have  waged;  their  industrious 
efforts  to  secure  information  as  to  the  defenses  and 
resources  of  our  country.  Added  to  these  is  the  racial 
suspicion  and  antipathy  which  is  general  in  those  sections 
which  contain  the  greatest  number  of  Orientals. 

If  there  is  any  widespread  suspicion  of  Japan  in  the 
United  States,  I  am  not  aware  of  it.  If  there  is  any  such 
feeling,  I  believe  it  proceeds  entirely  from  a  vague,  ill- 
defined  fear  of  the  so-called  yellow  peril  which  has  been 
permitted  to  creep  into  certain  minds  and  has  never  been 
tested  by  any  real  investigation  of  facts. 

The  suspicion  of  Japan  is  due,  I  think,  largely  to  the 
feeling  that  the  Japanese  are  commercially  untrustworthy 
and  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  when  one  can  take  their 
word  about  anything.  With  our  habits  of  thought,  this 
defect  in  the  national  character  counts  for  more  than  it 
should  and  makes  us  suspicious  of  them  even  in  those 
fields  where  we  ought  to  trust  them. 

Japan  maintains  a  persistently  menacing  attitude  toward 
us.  She  strains  at  a  gnat  in  San  Francisco  and  swallows 
a  camel  in  Vancouver.  The  actions  of  Australia,.  New 
Zealand,  Canada  in  matters  of  Japanese  immigration  pass 
unnoticed,  but  the  local  action  of  a  single  state  in  America, 
in  matters  over  which  the  national  government  has  no 
control,  as  fully  understood  by  the  Japanese  government, 
action  far  less  drastic,  continues  always  open,  and  period- 
ically the  Japanese  government  delivers  to  our  govern- 
ment what  is  equivalent  to  an  ultimatum. 


The  Japanese  "Menace"  91 

The  ground  for  suspicion  of  Japan,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly widespread  in  the  United  States,  is  that  for  the 
purposes  of  her  expansion  she  might  desire  to  disturb 
the  present  status  of  the  United  States  in  the  Pacific. 

As  far  as  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  the  replies 
received,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  no  unanimity  of 
opinion  on  the  subject.  The  minority  who  deny  that 
there  exists  any  suspicion  of  Japan  in  America  seem 
to  mean  that  there  is  no  justifiable  suspicion.  Some 
admit  that  there  is  suspicion,  but  claim  that  it  is  not 
widespread  enough  to  be  called  the  attitude  of  our 
nation.  Others  believe  that  this  feeling  of  distrust 
characterizes  our  whole  country. 

Our  chief  grounds  of  fear  of  Japan  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows :  ( i )  Japan's  national  interests  run 
counter  to  ours,  therefore  we  are  in  danger  of  acts 
of  aggression  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese.  (2)  A  deluge 
of  cheap  labor  will  lower  western  standards.  (3)  The 
entrance  of  Orientals  will  cause  us  to  face  a  new  race 
problem. 

However  unjustifiable  these  fears  may  seem  to  be, 
they  cannot  be  brushed  aside  as  unworthy  of  our  atten- 
tion. The  sentiments  that  they  create  are  real,  even 
though  the  reasons  upon  which  they  are  based  may 
be  false.  All  refusals  to  recognize  the  significance  of 
these  sentiments  can  only  result  in  deception  and  in 
further  loss  of  confidence. 

What,  then,  shall  be  our  conclusions  about  the  Jap- 
anese "  menace  "  ?  Is  it  an  illusion  fostered  by  military 
propagandists,  or  is  it  a  real  peril  which  we  must  sooner 
or  later  face  ?  To  such  a  question  no  final  answer  can 


92  The  Japanese  Invasion 

now  be  given.  The  forces  at  work  are  so  complex, 
the  situation  presents  itself  in  such  varied  aspects  to 
different  observers,  that  any  agreement  about  the 
future  outlook  is  impossible.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  the  time  is  past  for  us  to  be  lulled  into  a  feeling 
of  security  by  frequent  exchanges  of  honeyed  euphe- 
misms. The  custom  of  patting  each  other  on  the  back 
has  been  carried  to  the  point  of  absurdity  by  well- 
meaning  people  of  both  nations.  The  historic  friend- 
ship of  the  two  countries  is  held  up  as  something  so 
remarkable  that  it  is  sacrilege  to  suggest  that  it  might 
be  broken.  Such  talk  may  help  in  creating  a  kind  of 
public  opinion,  but  in  so  far  as  it  ignores  very  evident 
causes  of  friction,  it  does  more  harm  than  good.  If 
there  really  is  a  Japanese  menace  it  will  be  made  none 
the  less  so  by  refusing  to  recognize  its  existence.  The 
issue  does  not  depend  entirely  on  our  feelings  of  good 
will.  We  must  remember  that  we  have  arbitrarily 
arranged  the  present  status  of  affairs,  so  far  as  immi- 
gration from  the  East  is  concerned,  to  suit  our  interests 
and  not  those  of  the  Japanese.  The  issue  is  therefore 
up  to  them.  What  their  next  move  will  be,  no  one 
can  tell.  It  is  only  our  thoughtlessness  or  abounding 
egotism  that  leads  us  to  assume  that  the  Japanese  will 
never  take  up  arms  against  us  because  we  are  kindly 
disposed  toward  them.  Japan  is  an  ambitious  nation 
and  very  jealous  of  her  national  honor  as  well  as  keen 
to  promote  her  welfare.  Her  immediate  interests  may 
prompt  her  now  to  cultivate  America's  friendship.  Let 
us  not  be  too  sure  that  this  will  always  be  the  case. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  ISOLATION  OF  JAPANESE  IN  AMERICA 

THE  entrance  of  Japanese  into  American  life  in- 
volves radical  changes  in  their  old  habits  and 
mental  attitudes.  Their  success  in  the  new  environ- 
ment depends  upon  their  ability  to  readjust  themselves 
to  conditions  far  different  from  those  to  which  they 
have  been  accustomed.  The  readjustments  they  are 
compelled  to  make  are  far  greater  than  those  which 
are  expected  of  Americans  who  go  to  the  Orient. 

No  matter  how  much  the  foreign  missionaries  and 
foreign  business  men  in  Japan  may  try  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  their  surroundings,  they  will  still  live  in 
foreign  houses,  eat  foreign  food,  and  wear  foreign 
clothes.  They  are  under  no  economic  necessity  of 
adopting  Japanese  customs,  nor  are  they  supposed  to 
carry  out  wholesale  the  process  of  denationalization. 
Even  the  missionaries  who  have  resided  in  the  country 
for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  do  not  attempt 
by  their  manner  of  life  to  merge  themselves  unnoticed 
into  the  Japanese  nation.  The  language  may  be  so 
well  learned  and  native  customs  so  well  copied  that 
when  occasion  requires  they  can  mingle  with  the  Jap- 
anese without  causing  any  friction,  but  in  their  private 
life  at  least  it  is  assumed  that  American  ideals  shall 
be  maintained.  The  children  of  missionaries  are  not 

93 


94  The  Japanese  Invasion 

sent  to  Japanese  schools,  for  there  is  not  the  slightest 
intention  of  bringing  them  up  as  Japanese  citizens. 
With  but  few  exceptions,  the  foreigners  residing  in 
Japan  in  any  capacity  whatever  have  followed  the 
policy  of  remaining  as  a  race  apart. 

The  Japanese  immigrants,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
under  the  necessity  of  conforming  to  American  stand- 
ards because  they  are  competitors  in  our  economic  life. 
To  the  extent  that  they  live  in  their  own  groups  and 
retain  their  native  customs,  they  are  not  only  criticized, 
but  their  economic  opportunities  are  lessened.  In  order 
to  succeed  they  must  make  themselves  as  much  like 
Americans  as  possible. 

While  this  is  the  same  problem  that  all  our  immi- 
grants must  face,  it  possesses  peculiar  significance  in 
the  case  of  the  Japanese  because  of  the  widely  prevail- 
ing belief  in  the  incompatibility  of  the  two  civilizations. 
So  far  apart  has  the  East  seemed  from  the  West  that 
many  have  taken  it  for  granted  that  any  large  mingling 
of  the  two  races  is  impracticable.  As  Kipling  says : 

Oh,  East  is  East,  and  West  is  West, 
And  never  the  twain  shall  meet, 
Till  Earth  and  Sky  stand  presently, 
At  God's  great  Judgment  Seat. 

For  the  popular  impression  that  the  Japanese  dwell 
in  a  world  of  thought  and  action  diametrically  opposite 
to  our  own,  such  writers  as  Lafcadio  Hearn  and  Per- 
cival  Lowell  are  largely  responsible.  In  their  descrip- 
tion and  interpretation  of  the  Japanese  occur  these 
striking  passages : 


Isolation  in  America  95 

The  ideas  of  this  people  are  not  our  ideas ;  their  senti- 
ments are  not  our  sentiments ;  their  ethical  life  represents 
for  us  regions  of  thought  and  emotion  yet  unexplored,  or 
perhaps  long  forgotten.  Any  one  of  their  ordinary 
phrases  translated  into  western  speech  makes  hopeless 
nonsense;  and  the  literal  rendering  into  Japanese  of  the 
simplest  English  sentence  would  scarcely  be  compre- 
hended by  any  Japanese  who  had  never  studied  a 
European  tongue.  Could  you  learn  all  the  words  in  a 
Japanese  dictionary,  your  acquisition  would  not  help  you  in 
the  least  to  make  yourself  understood  in  speaking  unless 
you  had  learned  also  to  think  like  a  Japanese  —  that  is 
to  say,  to  think  backwards,  to  think  upside  down  and 
inside  out,  to  think  in  directions  totally  foreign  to  Aryan 
habit.1 

Intellectually,  at  least,  their  attitude  sets  gravity  at 
defiance.  For  to  the  mind's  eye  their  world  is  one  huge, 
comical  antithesis  of  our  own.  What  we  regard  intui- 
tively in  one  way  from  our  standpoint,  they  as  intuitively 
observe  in  a  diametrically  opposite  manner  from  theirs. 
To  speak  backwards,  write  backwards,  read  backwards,  is 
but  the  A  B  C  of  their  contrariety.  The  inversion  extends 
deeper  than  mere  modes  of  expression,  down  into  the 
very  matter  of  thought.  Ideas  of  ours  which  we  deemed 
innate  find  in  them  no  home,  while  methods  which  strike 
us  as  preposterously  unnatural  appear  to  be  their  birth- 
right. From  the  standing  of  a  wet  umbrella  on  its  handle 
instead  of  its  head  to  dry,  to  the  striking  of  a  match 
away  in  place  of  toward  one,  there  seems  to  be  no  action 
of  our  daily  lives,  however  trivial,  but  finds  with  them 
its  appropriate  reaction  —  equal  but  opposite.  Indeed, 
to  one  anxious  of  conforming  to  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  country,  the  only  road  to  right  lies  in  following 

1  Hearn,  Lafcadio,  Japan,  an  Attempt  at  Interpretation,  p.  12. 


96  The  Japanese  Invasion 

unswervingly  that  course  which   his  inherited  instincts 
assure  him  to  be  wrong.1 

Overdrawn  though  these  statements  may  be,  they 
are  nevertheless  based  on  striking  differences  between 
the  East  and  the  West  that  cannot  be  denied.  That 
the  Japanese  immigrants  have  much  farther  to  go  than 
the  European  immigrants  in  adapting  themselves  to 
American  ways,  is  undoubtedly  true.  Their  language, 
habits  of  thought,  methods  of  work,  social  customs, 
and  moral  ideals  are  handicaps  to  them  in  their  struggle 
for  existence  under  American  conditions.  Many  West- 
erners have  been  so  impressed  with  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  two  civilizations  that  they  believe  they  are 
based  on  fundamental  racial  differences  which  cannot 
be  eradicated.  In  their  opinion,  something  deeper  than 
social  heritage  is  involved,  and  therefore  assimilation 
with  the  West  is  impossible.  The  following  statements 
taken  from  American  periodicals  present  clearly  this 
point  of  view: 

For  the  Japanese  in  the  United  States  will  always  be 
Japanese.  They  will  not  become  Americans.  They  will 
neither  wish  to  merge  with  our  people  nor  shall  we  wish 
to  have  them.  Our  capacious  hospitalities  are  equal  to 
the  accommodation  of  a  good  many  of  them.  They  are 
clean,  well  mannered,  and  industrious ;  better  folk  by  far 
in  many  particulars  than  a  good  many  other  newcomers. 
But  they  are  not  our  kind,  and  will  not  merge.  They 
belong  to  Asia.  Their  hearts  are  there;  their  interests 
are  there.  In  this  country  we  believe  that  they  will 
always  deserve  good  treatment,  and  that  they  will  get  it. 

1  Lowell,  Pcrcival,  The  Soul  of  the  Far  East,  p.  2. 


Isolation  in  America  97 

But  if  there  ever  is  danger  that  any  part  of  the  country 
will  be  overrun  with  them  as  Hawaii  has  been,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  proper  and  peaceable  means  will  be  taken 
to  avert  that  danger.1 

The  Japanese  adopts  our  dress  and  manners,  but  his 
Americanization  never  extends  beyond  external  appear- 
ances. The  yellow  and  white  races  are  as  immiscible  as 
oil  and  water.  No  forces  of  education  or  civilization 
can  make  aught  but  an  Asiatic  out  of  a  Chinese  or 
Japanese.  There  can  be  no  assimilation,  nor  do  they 
desire  it.2 

Within  recent  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  to 
challenge  these  radical  statements.  Modern  ethnology 
is  laying  less  emphasis  upon  biological  aspects  of  ra- 
cial differences.  "The  real  variable,"  says  Professor 
Thomas,  "is  the  individual,  not  the  race."3  Because 
of  the  wide  variations  that  exist  within  a  single  racial 
group,  it  is  impossible  to  get  any  general  consensus  of 
opinion  as  to  what  actually  constitutes  racial  differ- 
ences. The  fact  that  is  coming  to  be  more  recognized 
is  the  similarity  in  the  mental  activities  of  mankind, 
which  has  resulted  in  a  remarkable  agreement  in  many 
of  the  fundamental  ideas  held  all  over  the  world.  The 
customs  of  a  people,  their  ways  of  reacting  to  given 
conditions,  their  peculiarities  of  manner  which  help 
to  differentiate  them  from  other  racial  groups,  are 

1  Editorial  in  Harper's  Weekly,  Dec.  i,  1905,  p.  1699. 

2  McLaughlin,  A.,   "  Chinese  and  Japanese  Immigration,"  the 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  66:  121. 

» Thomas,   W.   I.,  Sex  and  Society,  p.  288.     Cp.   Spiller,   G., 
"Science  and  Race  Prejudice,"  Sociological  Review,  5:346-47. 


98  The  Japanese  Invasion 

the  results  of  social  and  not  biological  heredity.  Race 
is  no  longer  thought  to  determine  types  of  civilization 
or  the  nature  of  moral  ideas.  These  factors  have 
grown  out  of  the  social  environment  and  consequently 
will  be  modified  as  the  environment  changes.1  The 
application  of  this  point  of  view  to  the  assimilability 
of  the  Japanese  is  well  brought  out  by  Dr.  Sidney  L. 
Gulick  in  his  recent  discussion  of  this  subject : 

That  there  are  no  psychological  differences  between 
East  and  West  is  by  no  means  our  contention.     There 

certainly  are Our  general  contention  is  that  such 

psychic  differences  as  distinguish  the  East  from  the  West 
are  products  of  social  life,  belong  to  the  social  order,  and 
are,  therefore,  subject  to  rapid  change.  The  psychic 
nature,  however,  is  identical  East  and  West  because  it  is 
human.  That  which  unites  them  is  universal  and  cosmic, 
while  that  which  separates  them  is  superficial  and  insular. 
On  first  acquaintance  they  may  seem  inscrutable  and  non- 
assimilable;  in  fact,  however,  there  is  no  insuperable 
obstacle  to  complete  mutual  understanding  and  assimila- 
tion  Old  Japan,  Japan  before  the  advent  of  Perry, 

was  apparently  so  fixed,  and  her  mode  of  thought  and  life 
and  reasoning  so  different  from  those  of  the  West,  that 
the  contention  of  unassimilable  race  differences  might 
have  seemed  logically  and  experimentally  defensible.  But 
that  contention  can  no  longer  stand.  New  Japan  has 
destroyed  it,  for  she  is  rapidly  assimilating  our  entire  occi- 
dental civilization  and  thereby  bringing  her  inner  life  into 
increasingly  close  harmony  with  ours.2 

1  Boas,  Franz,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  p.  155     Thomas, 
W.  I.,  "  The  Psychology  of  Race  Prejudice/'  Amer.  Journ.  Soc., 
9:593ff. 

2  The  American  Japanese  Problem,  pp.  145-46. 


'Isolation  in  America  99 

But  this  statement  of  the  assimilability  of  the  Jap- 
anese must  not  cause  us  to  minimize  unduly  the  wide 
differences  between  the  civilizations  of  the  East  and 
the  West.  These  differences  do  exist  as  a  serious 
handicap  to  the  Japanese  immigrants,  and  are  an  im- 
portant factor  in  isolating  them  from  many  of  the  best 
things  in  American  life.  It  is  too  early  in  the  history 
of  the  contact  of  the  two  races  to  dogmatize  about  the 
rapidity  and  the  success  with  which  the  isolation  will 
be  overcome.  All  we  can  do  is  to  consider  certain 
factors  which  will  throw  light  on  the  present  position 
of  the  Japanese  in  American  environment. 

Obviously,  the  ability  of  the  Japanese  to  adjust  them- 
selves to  their  new  environment  depends  to  a  great 
extent  upon  their  mental  preparation.  How  familiar 
are  they  with  western  civilization,  and  what  is  their 
attitude  toward  it?  The  Chinese,  as  is  well  known, 
still  maintain  so  thoroughly  their  old  attitude  of  supe- 
riority that  they  borrow  with  great  reluctance  from  the 
West.  The  Japanese,  however,  have  not  allowed  their 
dislike  for  foreigners  to  blind  them  to  the  advantages 
they  may  gain  by  learning  the  foreigners'  secrets  of 
success. 

One  of  the  striking  facts  about  the  Japanese  is  their 
frank  appreciation  of  western  civilization.  From  the 
time  when  the  late  Emperor  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  in  1868  issued  his  famous  edict  in  which  he  said 
that  "  knowledge  shall  be  sought  for  throughout  the 
whole  world/'  the  Japanese  leaders  began  to  revolu- 
tionize their  national  institutions.  The  patterns  for 


ioo  The  Japanese  Invasion 

their  wide-sweeping  changes  were  found  in  the  West 
and  were  adopted  with  a  rapidity  that  surprised 
the  whole  world.  The  form  of  government,  the 
educational  system,  the  means  of  communication, 
the  army  and  the  navy,  were  modeled  along  western 
lines. 

This  example  set  by  the  government  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  people  as  far  as  economic  considerations 
make  it  possible.  Foreign-style  business  buildings  are 
found  in  every  large  city,  and  it  is  becoming  the  fashion 
for  the  wealthy  to  build  a  foreign  annex  alongside 
their  native  houses.  Foreign  uniforms  have  been 
adopted  by  all  boys'  schools  above  the  primary  grades, 
and  foreign  clothing  is  frequently  worn  by  men  in  the 
better  classes  of  society.  Bakeries,  meat  shops,  and 
restaurants  that  serve  foreign  food  are  quite  common 
in  large  cities  and  are  well  patronized  by  the  people 
who  can  afford  a  more  expensive  standard  of  living. 
English  forms  a  very  prominent  part  of  the  curriculum 
of  schools  above  the  elementary  grades.  Students  in 
even  the  secondary  schools  are  required  to  read  in  the 
original  a  considerable  number  of  the  English  classics. 
Says  Dr.  Nitobe : 

It  is  through  the  channels  of  the  English  language  that 
Anglo-Saxon  ideas  exert  a  tremendous  influence  intel- 
lectually, morally,  politically,  and  socially.  In  this  way 
are  the  great  leaders  of  English  thought  made  familiar  to 
us,  and  being  constantly  quoted  they  are  perused  both 
in  the  original  and  in  translations.  Several  works  of 
Shakespeare  can  now  be  read  in  Japanese ;  Bacon,  Emer- 


Isolation  in  America  101 


son,  George  Eliot,  Poe,  Stevenson,  Longfellow,  Words- 
worth, Tennyson,  are  names  on  the  lips  of  everyone.1 

It  is  thus  clear  that  as  far  as  the  more  intelligent  and 
well-to-do  portion  of  the  Japanese  nation  are  concerned, 
they  are  well  prepared  to  enter  sympathetically  into 
American  life.  They  not  only  possess  some  familiarity 
with  western  institutions  and  customs,  but  have  a  de- 
sire to  adopt  western  standards  of  living  as  soon  as 
their  economic  condition  permits  it.  If  the  Japanese 
immigrants  had  been  largely  drawn  from  these  more 
intelligent  classes,  the  fact  of  the  wide  differences  be- 
tween the  two  civilizations  could  not  be  regarded  as  a 
very  serious  barrier  to  their  entrance  into  American 
environment. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  majority  of  the  immi- 
grants have  come  from  the  lower  classes,  which  have 
been  only  slightly  affected  by  the  transformation  of 
modern  Japan.  One  of  the  striking  contrasts  in  Japan 
is  the  progressive  modern  government,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  medieval  aspects  of  the  smaller  towns  and 
rural  communities,  on  the  other.  With  the  exception 
of  the  school  system  and  the  government  organization, 
rural  Japan  has  not  yet  been  drawn  into  the  current 

1  Nitobe,  I.,  The  Japanese  Nation,  p.  186.  Professor  Togawa, 
in  an  article  entitled  "  Western  Works  of  Literature,  Religion,  and 
Philosophy  Translated  and  Introduced  in  Japan,"  enumerates  a 
large  list  of  western  books  which  are  familiar  to  the  Japanese. 
He  says :  "  The  assiduity  with  which  these  translations  were  made 
and  the  eagerness  with  which  they  have  been  and  are  being  wel- 
comed attest  the  attitude  of  the  minds  of  the  people  who  wish  to 
study  the  natural  characteristics  of  the  nations  of  the  world  in 
order  to  enrich  their  own." — Japan's  Message  to  America,  p.  221. 


102  The  Japanese  Invasion 

of  modern  life.  The  agricultural  class,  from  which 
come  three-fifths  of  all  the  immigrants,  is  the  most 
conservative  and  backward  portion  of  the  nation.1 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Com.,  23:8-9:  "Perhaps  three- 
fifths  or  even  more  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  to  the  United 
States  have  been  of  the  agricultural  classes.  The  various  city 
classes  have  been  small  in  comparison.  This  is  shown  by  the 
occupations  of  Japanese  aliens  arrived  at  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  (including  Hawaii)  and  Canada  (from  1901  to  1909)  as  re- 
ported by  the  Commissioner-General  of  Immigration 10.3 

per  cent  of  the  immigrants  for  the  nine  years  had  been  farmers  in 
Japan,  while  43.5  per  cent  had  been  farm  laborers,  most  of  whom 
were  youths  or  young  men  working  on  their  fathers'  farms  with- 
out wages,  for  farm  laborers  working  regularly  for  wages  have 
been  relatively  few.  Moreover,  21.8  per  cent,  including  women  and 
children,  had  not  been  gainfully  occupied.  A  large  percentage  of 
these  were  the  wives  and  small  children  of  farmers  and  farm 
laborers  and  should  be  added  to  the  percentage  given  above  in 
order  to  obtain  an  estimate  of  the  relative  number  of  the  farming 
class  emigrating  from  Japan.  As  opposed  to  the  53.8  per  cent 
who  had  been  gainfully  employed  in  agricultural  pursuits,  2.1  per 
cent  were  professional  men  (physicians,  teachers,  preachers,  ac- 
tors, etc.)  ;  5.8  per  cent  were  merchants,  grocers,  and  bankers;  3.8 
per  cent  skilled  laborers  in  a  great  variety  of  trades ;  6.7  per  cent 
common  laborers;  1.3  per  cent  had  been  occupied  in  the  various 
branches  of  domestic  and  personal  service,  and  4.7  per  cent  in 
other  occupations  of  which  fishing  was  no  doubt  one  of  the  most 
important.  Thus,  the  majority  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  have 
been  drawn  from  the  rural  sections  of  the  country." 

Y.  Ichihashi  in  his  pamphlet,  Japanese  Immigration,  pp.  8-10, 
has  attempted  to  present  the  social  and  economic  status  of  the 
Japanese  in  a  more  favorable  light.  According  to  his  statement 
only  35-5  Per  cent  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  have  come  from 
the  farming  and  laboring  classes.  He  evidently  secured  these 
figures  by  leaving  out  of  account  the  large  numbers  of  Japanese 
who  came  to  the  mainland  from  Hawaii  during  the  early  nineties, 
many  of  whom  went  to  these  islands  as  contract  laborers  to  work 
on  the  sugar  plantations  and  so  were  drawn  largely  from  the 
lower  classes  in  Japan.  In  the  year  icjo6,  ninety  per  cent  of  those 
who  entered  Hawaii  were  classed  by  the  Japanese  government  as 
fanners  and  laborers.  The  importance  of  the  early  immigration 


Isolation  in  America  103 

Yoshida,  in  an  article  on  the  "  Sources  and  Causes 
of  Japanese  Emigration,"  described  this  class  of  rural 
emigrants  as  follows :  v 

They  belong  to  the  lower  classes  of  the  Japanese 
community,  if  not  to  the  lowest  of  all.  They  are  the  real 
cornerstone  of  the  nation  but  they  are  poor.  In  this  class 
of  emigrants  the  most  conservative,  uneducated,  and  inno- 
cent persons  can  be  found.  The  greater  number  of  them 
being  quite  ignorant  of  foreign  conditions,  they  are  usu- 
ally cared  for  and  transported  by  the  so-called  "  emigra- 
tion companies."  Farm  laborers  whose  daily  wages  are 
an  average  of  only  thirty-two  sen  (sixteen  cents)  have 
hardly  an  opportunity  to  accumulate  money  enough  to 
escape  from  their  own  group.  The  sole  motive  of  this 
emigration  is  to  make  money,  and  nothing  more.1 

Because  of  the  isolation  and  low  economic  condition 
of  the  farming  class  in  Japan,  modern  ideas  and  meth- 
ods of  work  have  not  gained  as  yet  wide  acceptance 
among  them.  In  general,  they  cultivate  their  land 
without  the  help  of  modern  machinery.  The  ground 
is  prepared  in  the  most  primitive  way.  Rice,  which  is 
the  principal  crop,  is  transplanted  and  tended  by  hand, 
harvested  with  a  sickle,  and  threshed  with  a  flail.  The 
conditions  of  life,  moreover,  are  hard.  In  proportion 
to  its  cultivatable  area,  Japan  is  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated country  in  the  world.  Consequently,  the  farms 

of  Japanese  from  Hawaii  can  be  seen  by  the  fact  that  more  than 
37,000  came  from  there  to  the  mainland  from   1902-1908,  while 
the  direct  immigration  from  Japan  to  our  Pacific  coast  amounted 
to  about  40,000  during  this  period. 
1  Annals  Amer.  Acad.t  34 :  385. 


104  The  Japanese  Invasion 

are  in  many  cases  too  small  to  give  adequate  support 
to  the  families  dependent  upon  them.1  A  life  of  un- 
ceasing toil  and  a  low  scale  of  living  is  the  usual  lot 
of  the  small  fanners  in  Japan.  Holidays  with  them 
are  rare,  for  in  winter  and  in  inclement  weather  they 
must  support  themselves  by  some  subsidiary  occupa- 
tion. Their  schooling  is  usually  limited  to  the  minimum 
prescribed  by  law,  and  their  outlook  on  life  extends 
rarely  beyond  their  own  community.  The  small  farm- 
ers and  farm  laborers  who  have  sought  to  improve 
their  economic  condition  by  emigration  have  therefore 
little  preparation  for  their  new  life  in  America  except 
their  habits  of  industry  and  their  willingness  to  put  up 
with  hard  conditions. 

It  is  inevitable  that  immigrants  of  this  type  should 
show  a  tendency  to  segregate  themselves  in  communi- 
ties of  their  own  people  where  they  can  keep  up  their 
own  language  and  customs.  Difficulties  of  language 
would  alone  be  sufficient  to  cause  them  to  desire  to 
dwell  together.  While  it  is  usually  said  that  the  Jap- 
anese are  more  zealous  and  successful  in  learning 
English  than  some  of  our  other  immigrant  groups,  the 
fact  still  remains  that  forty  per  cent  of  the  Japanese 

1  The  cultivated  land  in  Japan  comprises  only  about  seventeen 
per  cent  of  the  total  area,  a  tract  of  land  about  one-third  of  the 
size  of  the  state  of  Illinois.  Counting  the  whole  area  of  Japan, 
the  average  density  of  population  is  about  280  to  the  square  mile. 

Seventy  per  cent  of  the  total  population  belong  to  the  farming 
class,  who  must  support  their  families  on  farms  the  average  size 
of  which  is  less  than  three  acres.  It  is  estimated  that  only  three 
farmers  in  a  hundred  cultivate  as  much  as  eight  acres. 

Cp.  Porter,  R.  P.,  The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  p.  260. 


Isolation  in  America  105 

in  America  speak  only  their  mother  tongue.  Moreover, 
among  those  who  are  classified  as  English-speaking 
Japanese,  comparatively  few  show  much  facility  in  the 
use  of  our  language.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Japanese 
are  notoriously  poor  linguists.  Japanese  students,  who 
have  had  good  opportunities  to  learn  English,  often 
express  themselves  with  difficulty  even  after  years  of 
study.  That  uneducated  laborers  who  have  come  to 
America  as  adults  should  find  English  an  almost  insur- 
mountable difficulty  need  not  occasion  surprise.  Mr.  K. 
Mikami,  a  New  York  business  man,  expressed  himself 
in  this  way  concerning  his  countrymen's  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  English  language : 

I  have  no  doubt  —  nay,  I  can  assert  —  that  if  our  coun- 
trymen on  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States  could  speak 
and  write  English  in  their  daily  life  and  transaction  of 
business  and  in  association  with  their  American  neighbors, 
there  would  have  been  few,  if  any,  unpleasant  contro- 
versies. I  want  it,  however,  to  be  understood  that  I  do 
not  expect  Japanese  laborers  to  speak  and  write  English 
with  such  excellence  as  experts  in  the  language,  but  I 
do  expect  them  to  use  English  to  show  their  American 
neighbors  that  they  are  appreciative  of  the  language  which 
is  the  only  instrumentality  for  giving  expression  to  the 
customs  and  manners  of  the  communities  in  which  the 
Japanese  laborers  live.1 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  lack  of  facility  in 
the  use  of  English  is  one  of  the  strong  factors  tending 
to  isolate  the  Japanese  laboring  class.  It  is  natural  that 

1  New  York  Japan  Review,  April,  1914,  p.  135. 


io6  The  Japanese  Invasion 

they  should  prefer  to  live  in  a  group  where  their  own 
language  is  understood. 

Economic  necessity  also  practically  compels  the  new 
immigrants  to  seek  shelter  in  a  Japanese  community. 
Their  best  method  of  securing  employment  is  through 
contractors  of  their  own  race  who  hire  them  out  in 
gangs  to  those  in  need  of  laborers.  Even  after  having 
lived  some  time  in  this  country,  they  find  it  to  their 
interest  to  congregate  in  "Japanese  quarters/'  Their 
peculiarities  in  diet,  ways  of  living,  and  forms  of  rec- 
reation tend  to  draw  the  Japanese  into  racial  groups. 
There  must  be  business  houses  to  cater  to  their  demand 
for  things  Japanese.  Lodging  houses  must  be  estab- 
lished for  the  accommodation  of  the  Japanese  who 
have  no  homes  of  their  own.  Japanese  families  enjoy 
a  more  congenial  companionship  among  people  of  their 
own  nationality. 

The  Japanese,  in  fact,  have  tended  to  segregate  them- 
selves for  the  same  reasons  that  have  led  many  of  our 
European  immigrants  to  establish  themselves  in  sepa- 
rate national  groups.  The  only  difference  is  that  this 
tendency  has  been  accentuated  in  the  case  of  the  Jap- 
anese by  the  strong  race  prejudice  existing  against 
them.  It  is  the  outside  pressure  of  a  hostile  environ- 
ment as  well  as  the  inner  compulsion  of  common  inter- 
ests that  forces  them  to  live  in  segregated  quarters  in 
most  of  the  cities  on  our  western  coast. 

In  San  Francisco  there  are  two  districts  which  are 
largely  given  over  to  the  residence  and  business  of  the 
Japanese.  In  Los  Angeles  few  Japanese  are  found 


'Isolation  in  America  107 

outside  of  the  two  well-defined  colonies  that  have  been 
established  there.  Sacramento  has  a  "  Japanese  quar- 
ter" consisting  of  five  or  six  blocks.  The  Japanese 
in  Seattle  live  and  have  their  places  of  business  in  a 
section  of  the  city  which  has  been  gradually  given  over 
to  their  use.  Even  in  cities  like  Denver  and  Salt  Lake 
City,  where  the  Japanese  population  is  not  much  more 
than  five  hundred,  there  is  this  same  tendency  to  live 
in  colonies.1 

The  Japanese,  however,  have  never  shown  the  spirit 
of  exclusiveness  to  the  same  extent  as  the  Chinese,  who 
have  no  desire  to  settle  outside  their  "  Chinatown/' 
While  for  social  and  economic  reasons  the  Japanese 
find  it  to  their  interest  to  live  together  in  groups,  there 
exists  also  a  tendency  among  the  more  intelligent  and 
well-to-do  classes  to  secure  houses  in  good  residence 
sections  of  the  city.  Indeed,  one  of  the  charges  re- 
peatedly brought  against  them  in  the  West  is  that  they 
exhibit  a  determination  to  spread  out  over  the  city 
and  country  and  live  where  they  find  it  best  suited  to 
their  purpose.  "  Far  from  being  clannish,"  says  Mr. 
Kawakami,  "the  Japanese  in  America  endeavor  to 
adjust  themselves  to  their  new  environment,  mingling 
with  their  American  cousins  as  freely  as  circumstances 
allow."2 

This  statement  is  undoubtedly  true  of  the  best  type 
of  Japanese  immigrants.  The  race  prejudice  in  the 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Com.,  24:251,  277. 

2  Kawakami,  K.  K.,  "  Naturalization  of  Japanese,"  North  Amer- 
ican Review,  185 : 401. 


io8  The  Japanese  Invasion 

West,  which  practically  forces  thte  mass  of  the  Japanese 
to  segregate  themselves,  arouses  also  an  intense  desire 
among  the  better  classes  to  escape  from  the  odium  that 
rests  upon  them  as  residents  of  the  "Jap  Quarter." 
To  the  extent  that  they  have  taken  over  American 
standards  of  living  and  regard  them  as  more  desirable 
than  their  old  mode  of  life,  they  feel  uncomfortable 
in  their  own  group  and  resent  the  necessity  of  sharing 
a  criticism  that  they  believe  they  no  longer  deserve. 
The  Chinese  immigrants  have  seemingly  never  admit- 
ted the  greater  desirability  of  American  civilization. 
Prepossessed  with  their  idea  that  their  customs  are 
best,  it  has  been  easy  for  them  to  maintain  group  soli- 
darity. Outside  criticisms  serve  merely  to  strengthen 
the  bonds  which  bind  them  together,  because  they  do 
not  accept  the  criticisms  as  just  or  reasonable.  While 
this  attitude  of  mind  prevents  their  assimilation,  it  is 
largely  responsible  for  the  decline  of  the  feeling  of 
hostility  against  them.  By  remaining  in  their  own 
group  and  accepting  the  position  in  life  accorded  them, 
they  have  given  the  least  possible  disturbance  to  the 
communities  in  which  they  live.1 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  more 
aggressive  type  of  Japanese,  who  have  refused  to  be 
confined  in  the  narrow  limits  assigned  them,  are  always 
able  to  escape  from  their  former  isolation  by  a  mere 
change  of  residence.  In  extreme  cases  where  prejudice 
against  them  is  strongest,  this  isolation  is  effected  by 

1  Simons,   S.   E.,   "  Social   Assimilation,"   Amer.  Journ.  Soc., 
7 : 559-42. 


Isolation  in  America  109 

the  white  people  moving  out  of  the  community  in  which 
the  Japanese  have  entered.  More  generally  the  same 
result  is  secured  by  refusing  to  associate  with  them 
upon  terms  of  social  equality,  or  by  simply  ignoring 
their  presence  outside  of  business  relations. 

Even  in  such  a  cosmopolitan  city  as  Chicago,  where, 
because  of  the  comparatively  small  number  of  Japanese, 
prejudice  against  them  is  at  a  minimum,  the  Japanese 
residents,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  students, 
are  made  to  feel  that  they  are  not  an  integral  part  of 
the  social  life  of  the  city.  They  are  not  welcomed  in 
social  functions  of  Americans  who  are  their  equals 
in  income  and  business  position.  As  a  rule,  the  Jap- 
anese who  are  engaged  in  business  do  not  have  a  suffi- 
cient command  of  English  to  make  them  acceptable  in 
American  social  circles.  Their  vocabulary  is  adequate 
for  their  business  needs,  but  when  it  comes  to  social 
intercourse  they  are  handicapped  by  lack  of  facility  of 
expression.  It  is  noticeable  that  when  the  Japanese 
and  Americans  do  meet  in  a  social  way  there  is  a 
tendency  for  them  to  separate  into  racial  groups. 

At  the  large  Japanese-American  banquet  held  in 
Chicago  in  the  autumn  of  1914,  a  special  effort  was 
made  by  the  Japanese  in  charge  of  the  occasion  to  have 
the  Japanese  and  Americans  occupy  alternate  seats  at 
the  different  tables.  When  all  were  seated,  however, 
it  was  found  that  two  tables  were  occupied  exclusively 
by  Japanese,  while  an  undue  proportion  of  Americans 
crowded  other  parts  of  the  room.  Of  course  this  may 
be  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  two  groups 


i io  The  Japanese  Invasion 

were  not  well  acquainted  with  each  other,  but  a  more 
fundamental  reason  was  a  tacit  recognition  of  differ- 
ences in  language  and  interests  which  made  each  feel 
more  at  ease  with  people  of  his  own  nationality. 

It  might  be  mentioned  that  the  same  thing  occurs  in 
Japan  in  social  meetings  attended  by  both  missionaries 
and  Japanese  Christian  workers.  In  this  case  it  is  to 
the  interest  of  both  parties  to  cultivate  cordial  relations 
and  a  special  effort  is  made  to  mingle  freely  with  each 
other.  On  these  occasions  there  is  usually  seen  this 
same  tendency  to  break  up  into  small  groups  composed 
entirely  of  one  nationality.  Even  though  all  may  pos- 
sess a  working  knowledge  of  each  other's  language, 
there  is  a  certain  strain  and  tension  in  using  a  foreign 
tongue  which  makes  one  feel  more  comfortable  among 
his  own  people.  Besides,  sufficient  familiarity  with 
the  foreign  tongue  to  make  possible  the  understanding 
of  jokes  and  allusions  and  to  give  skill  in  repartee  is 
not  often  attained  by  either  Japanese  or  Americans. 
At  any  rate  even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, there  exists  a  sufficient  barrier  to  prevent  com- 
plete freedom  in  social  intercourse,  and  as  a  result  more 
or  less  isolation  is  inevitable. 

In  spite  of  all  these  difficulties  in  the  way  of  social 
intercourse  with  Americans,  the  more  intelligent  Jap- 
anese immigrants  cannot  be  accused  of  exclusiveness 
or  a  desire  to  perpetuate  their  own  social  customs. 
They  are  willing  to  come  more  than  halfway  in  an 
effort  to  meet  the  Americans  and  to  share  in  their  social 
life.  The  great  difficulty  is  that  this  process  of  assimi- 


Isolation  in  America  in 

lation  must  be  carried  on  in  an  unwelcome  environ- 
ment. Instead  of  being  encouraged  to  live  among  the 
American  people,  they  are  either  forced  to  segregate 
themselves  in  their  own  communities  or  at  least  are 
driven  in  upon  each  other  to  satisfy  their  social  crav- 
ings. This  dwelling  together  in  mass  intensifies  their 
sentiments  and  makes  more  persistent  their  race  char- 
acteristics. An  individual  alone  is  not  the  same  as 
when  he  is  in  a  crowd  of  like-minded  persons.  For  the 
same  reason  a  Japanese  living  alone  in  an  American 
community  will  think  and  act  quite  differently  from 
his  countrymen  massed  in  one  section  of  a  city  or 
living  in  a  country  district  where  Japanese  predomi- 
nate. The  most  serious  barrier  to  their  assimilation  is 
not  the  wide  differences  in  civilization  between  the 
two  races,  but  is  rather  the  race  prejudice  which  pre- 
vents them  from  entering  fully  into  American  life. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  REACTION  OF  THE  JAPANESE  TO  AMERICAN 
ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 

THE  entrance  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  into  new 
callings,  the  necessity  of  adapting  themselves  to 
different  methods  of  work,  their  struggle  for  existence 
under  strange  conditions  of  life  involve  mental  changes 
of  great  significance.  The  nature  of  their  occupations 
limits  their  activities  to  definite  lines  and  determines 
the  objects  of  their  attention  as  well  as  the  class  of 
people  with  whom  they  associate.  For  these  reasons 
a  study  of  the  reaction  of  the  Japanese  to  American 
economic  conditions  is  important  in  any  attempt  to  esti- 
mate the  fitness  of  these  people  for  American  life. 

The  characteristic  occupation  of  the  early  Japanese 
immigrants  was  that  of  domestic  service.  They  were 
attracted  to  this  kind  of  work  not  because  they  were 
particularly  well  qualified  for  it,  but  because  they  found 
it  an  employment  in  which  there  was  a  demand  for 
their  services.  Many  of  the  Japanese  who  came  to 
America  at  that  time  were  young  men  so  desirous  of 
securing  a  western  education  that  they  were  willing  to 
do  any  kind  of  work  to  support  themselves  while  pur- 
suing their  studies.  Their  purpose  was  to  carry  back 
to  Japan  not  a  large  amount  of  money,  but  an  educa- 

112 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions         113 

tion  that  would  fit  them  for  good  positions  in  their 
native  land.  The  work  of  domestic  service  was  espe- 
cially popular  among  the  poor  student  class  because 
they  were  able  to  improve  their  English  by  living  and 
working  in  American  homes.  Dr.  Nitobe,  in  his  de- 
scription of  the  Japanese  in  California  in  1890,  wrote 
as  follows: 

The  Japanese  in  California  range  generally  from  eighteen 
to  thirty  years  in  age,  and  represent  by  no  means  the  labor- 
ing classes.  Many  of  them  are  the  sons  of  old  samurai 
full  of  ambition  and  energy,  yet  without  means  to  obtain  a 
liberal  education.  As  to  their  means  of  subsistence,  there 
are  very  few  who  are  professional  men  or  who  are  mere 
drudges.  There  are  two  Japanese  physicians  practicing 
in  San  Francisco.  Law  students  are  debarred  by  statute 
from  pleading  in  the  state  courts.  Very  few  Japanese 
names  are  to  be  found  in  the  college  catalogues  of  the 
state.  There  is,  however,  an  instructor  of  Chinese  and 
Japanese  languages  in  the  Maclay  Institute  of  Theology 
at  San  Fernando.  The  majority  —  we  might  say  nearly 
all  —  of  the  Japanese  in  California  make  their  living  as 
waiters,  domestics,  and  shop  boys,  while  the  stronger 
serve  as  sailors  or  coasters.  It  is  usual  with  many  of 
them  to  make  an  arrangement  with  their  employers  by 
which  they  are  allowed  an  hour  or  two  each  day  in  order 
to  attend  schools ;  this,  of  course,  at  the  sacrifice  of  their 
wages.  One  cannot  too  much  admire  the  pluck  of  some 
of  the  boys  who,  by  laboring  under  unaccustomed  dis- 
advantages, are  still  ambitious  to  carry  home  the  learning 
of  the  West.1 


1  Nitobe,  I.,  The  Intercourse  Between  the  United  States  and 
Japan,  p.  184. 


ii4  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Another  writer,  in  an  article  published  in  1897, 
emphasized  this  same  characteristic  of  the  Japanese 
immigrants : 

Most   of   the   Japanese    are   employed    as   household 

servants  and  as  waiters  in  hotels  and  restaurants 

They  are  generally  inspired  with  a  desire  to  possess  an 
American  education,  and  they  have  visions  of  some  day 
attaining  this  and  returning  to  Japan  equipped  to  engage 
in  some  of  the  higher,  more  profitable  occupations  of  life.1 

The  reaction  of  an  ambitious  Japanese  student  to 
the  conditions  imposed  by  the  work  of  a  domestic  serv- 
ant can  be  very  clearly  seen  in  an  interesting  article 
entitled  "The  Confession  of  a  Japanese  Servant," 
which  appeared  in  the  Independent  of  September  21, 
1905.  The  author,  a  Japanese  boy  of  the  middle  class, 
came  to  America  determined  to  acquire  a  western  edu- 
cation. Lack  of  funds  compelled  him  to  seek  employ- 
ment soon  after  his  arrival.  He  thus  states  his  first 
experience  in  securing  work : 

Great  disappointment  and  regret  I  have  experienced 
when  I  was  told  that  I,  the  boy  of  seventeen  years  old, 
smaller  in  stature  indeed  than  ordinary  fourteen  years 
old  American  boy,  imperfect  in  English  knowledge,  I  can 
be  of  any  use  here,  but  become  a  domestic  servant,  as  the 
field  for  Japanese  very  narrow  and  limited.  Thus  reluc- 
tantly I  have  submitted  to  be  a  recruit  of  the  army  of 
domestic  servants  of  which  I  ever  dreamed  up  to  this 
time.  The  place  where  I  got  to  work  in  the  first  time 
was  a  boarding  house.  My  duties  were  to  peel  potatoes, 

1  Bennett,  J.  E.,  "The  Japanese  on  the  Pacific  Coast,"  the 
Chautouquan,  26:  186. 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions        115 

wash  the  dishes,  a  few  laundry  work,  and  also  I  was 
expected  to  do  whatever  mistress,  waitress,  and  cook  has 
told  me. 

When  I  first  entered  the  kitchen  wearing  a  white  apron, 
what  an  uncomfortable  and  mortifying  feeling  I  experi- 
enced. I  thought  I  shall  never  be  able  to  proceed  the 
work.  I  felt  as  if  I  am  pressed  down  on  my  shoulder  with 
loaded  tons  of  weight.  My  heart  palpitates.  I  did  not 
know  what  I  am  and  what  to  say.  I  stood  by  door  of 
kitchen  motionless  like  a  stone,  with  a  dumbfound  silence. 

The  cook  gave  me  a  scornful  look  and  said  nothing 

What  would  the  boys  in  Japan  say  if  they  found  me 
out.  I  am  thus  employed  in  the  kitchen  receiving  the 
orders  from  the  maidservant  whom  I  have  once  looked 
down  and  thought  never  to  be  equal  while  I  was  dining  at 
my  uncle's  house.  I  feel  the  homesick.  I  was  so  lone- 
some and  so  sorry  that  I  came  to  America.  Ignoring 
the  kind  advice  of  my  friends,  rejecting  the  offer  of  help 
from  my  uncle  at  home,  quickened  by  my  youthful  senti- 
ment to  be  the  independent,  and  believing  the  work  alone 
to  be  the  noble,  I  came  to  this  country  to  educate  myself 
worthy  to  my  father's  name.  How  beautiful  idea  it 
was  while  it  existed  in  imagination,  but  how  hard  it  is 
when  it  came  to  practice.  There  was  no  honor,  no  respon- 
sibility, no  sense  of  duty,  but  the  pliancy  of  servitude  was 
the  cardinal  requirement.  There  is  no  personal  liberty 
while  your  manhood  is  completely  ignored. 

The  unaccustomed  work  and  the  humiliation  in- 
volved in  the  position  of  a  servant  were  more  than  he 
could  endure,  and  so  he  asked  to  be  discharged.  The 
reasons  he  gave  for  wishing  to  leave  illustrate  the  lack 
of  frankness  and  indirectness  of  the  Japanese,  which 
have  caused  so  many  misunderstandings  with  their 
American  employers: 


n6  The  Japanese  Invasion 

She  wanted  me  to  state  the  reason.  My  real  objection 
was  that  the  work  was  indeed  too  hard  and  unpleasant  for 
me  to  bear,  and  also  there  were  no  time  even  to  read  a 
book.  But  I  thought  it  is  rather  impolite  to  say  so,  and 
partly  my  strange  pride  hated  to  confess  my  weakness, 
fearing  the  reflection  as  a  lazy  boy.  Really  I  could  not 
think  how  smoothly  I  should  tell  my  reasons.  So  I  kept 
silent  rather  with  a  stupefied  look.  She  suggested  me  if 
the  work  were  not  too  hard.  It  was  just  the  point,  but 
how  foolish  I  was ;  I  did  positively  denied.  "  Then  why 
can  you  not  stay  here  ?  "  she  went  on.  I  said  childishly, 
"  I  have  nothing  to  complain ;  simply  I  wants  to  go  back 
to  New  York.  My  passion  wants  to." 

According  to  his  Japanese  training  it  was  his  duty 
to  bear  silently  his  unpleasant  lot.  No  matter  how 
much  his  indignation  was  aroused  over  the  way  he  was 
treated,  etiquette  demanded  that  his  feelings  should 
be  concealed.  Even  when  the  proper  time  came  for 
him  to  explain  his  desire  to  leave,  he  felt  it  was  neces- 
sary to  say  the  pleasant  thing  rather  than  to  tell  the 
truth.  When  finally  he  did  leave  secretly  during  his 
mistress'  absence,  his  incomprehensible  action  was 
charged  up  to  Japanese  unreliability  and  was  regarded 
as  an  additional  proof  of  the  tendency  of  the  race  to 
break  agreements  without  any  adequate  reason. 

In  all  of  his  varied  experiences  as  a  servant  in  Amer- 
ica, he  was  not  able  to  overcome  his  feeling  of  resent- 
ment against  those  who  treated  him  as  an  inferior. 
He  recognized  the  fact  that  he  was  a  servant,  but  he 
wanted  nevertheless  to  be  treated  as  a  man.  To  obey 
orders  slavishly  was  impossible  for  him.  He  desired 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions         117 

a  larger  place  in  the  management  of  the  household  than 
is  usually  granted  to  a  servant,  and  at  times  even 
attempted  to  give  advice  to  his  employers. 

Once  I  worked  for  a  widow  lady  whose  incomes  are 
derived  from  the  real  estate,  stock,  and  bonds.  She  is 
economizing  so  strictly  that  often  handicapped  me.  One 
day  taking  the  chances  of  her  good  humor,  I  told  her 
that  her  well-meant  efforts  are  the  misapplication  of  her 
energy,  trying  to  save  her  pin  money  through  the  economy 
of  gas  bill  and  grocery  bill  in  the  old-fashioned  way,  while 
neglecting  to  avail  herself  to  the  "  modern  high  finance 
scheme  "  whereby  she  may  improve  her  resources.  The 
reward  of  this  speech  was  an  honorable  discharge.  To  be 
a  successful  servant  is  to  make  yourself  a  fool. 

One  summer  he  secured  employment  as  a  cabin  boy 
on  a  steam  yacht  where  he  was  thrown  into  contact 
with  people  of  wealth.  Here  he  had  his  first  experience 
with  American  tips,  a  custom  which  he  despised  be- 
cause they  were  usually  given  in  an  offensive  manner 
that  injured  his  feelings.  He  thus  describes  how  he 
felt  about  it: 

I  hate  the  rich  people  who  display  their  wealth  and  give 
me  a  tip  in  a  boastful  manner.  I  felt  I  am  insulted  and 
I  have  protested.  Sometime  the  tip  was  handed  down 
indirectly  from  the  hands  of  the  captain.  Each  time 
when  I  have  obliged  to  take  the  tip,  I  am  distinctly  felt 
"the  gift  without  giver  is  bare/*  I,  however,  thankfully 
accepted  the  offer  from  a  lady  who  give  me  the  money  in 
such  a  kind  and  sympathetic  manner.  A  gentleman  gave 
me  one  dollar,  saying  "  I  wish  this  were  ten  times  as 
much ;  still  I  want  you  keep  it  for  me  to  help  your  study/' 


n8  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Indeed  this  one  dollar,  how  precious  I  felt.  Once  a  fas- 
tidious lady  was  on  the  board.  She  used  to  kick  one  thing 
to  another.  Of  course  I  did  not  pay  any  attention.  When- 
ever she  scold  me,  I  said  at  heart,  "  It's  your  pleasure  to 
blame  me,  lady.  I,  on  my  part,  simply  to  hear  you.  I 
am  not  almighty;  I  cannot  be  a  perfect.  If  I  made  mis- 
take, I  shall  correct.  You  might  bully  me  as  you  please 
and  treat  me  like  a  dog,  I  shall  not  object.  I  have  a  soul 
within  me.  My  vital  energy  in  self-denying  struggle  could 
not  be  impaired  by  your  despise.  On  the  contrary,  it 
will  be  stimulated."  That  the  way  I  used  swallowed  down 
all  the  reprimand  she  gave  me.  I,  however,  getting  tired 
to  hear  her  sharp  tongue  and  hoping  to  be  on  the  good 
term  with  her.  One  morning  I  have  exerted  an  excep- 
tionally goou  care  to  clean  her  cabin.  Right  after  I  got 
through  her  compartment,  she  called  me  back  and  told 
me  that  I  did  not  take  a  good  care  of.  I  replied  emphat- 
ically with  a  conviction,  "  I  did  my  best  under  the  circum- 
stance." But  she  insisted  I  must  do  better  next  time. 
Then  she  took  out  a  dollar  bill  and  gave  it  to  me.  I 
refused  to  take  it.  She  thrust  the  money  into  my  hand. 
I  have  thrown  back  the  paper  money  to  her  feet.  "  Madam, 
this  is  the  bribe  and  graft.  I  am  amply  paid  from  the 
owner  of  the  yacht  to  serve  you,"  said  I.  "No,  madam ; 
no  tip  for  me."  Without  waiting  her  answer,  while  she 
seemed  taken  entirely  surprised,  I  quickly  withdrew 
from  her. 

It  is  clear  that  such  a  high-spirited,  sensitive  Jap- 
anese would  not  fit  well  into  American  life  as  a  serv- 
ant or,  as  he  defines  it,  a  "  coworker  with  the  Venus 
in  the  American  commissary  department."  His  ex- 
perience led  him  to  the  following  conclusions  about 
the  effect  of  this  kind  of  work  upon  many  of  his  coun- 
trymen: 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions         119 

Some  says  Japanese  are  studying  while  they  are  work- 
ing in  the  kitchen,  but  it  is  all  nonsense.     Many  of  them 

started  so,  but  nearly  all  of  them   failed Many 

Japanese  servants  has  told  me  as  soon  as  they  saved  suffi- 
cient amount  of  money  they  would  start  the  business.  But 
many  young  Japanese,  while  their  intentions  are  laudable, 
they  will  find  the  vile  condition  of  environment  in  a  large 
city  like  New  York  has  a  greater  force  than  their  moral 
courage  could  resist.  Disheartened  from  the  hard  work 
or  excessive  disagreeableness  of  their  environment  often 
tempt  them  to  seek  a  vain  comfort  in  the  misdirected 
quarter;  thus  dissipate  their  preciously  earned  money. 
Even  those  who  have  saved  money  successfully  for  the 
capital  to  start  the  business,  their  future  is  quite  doubt- 
ful. When  they  have  saved  enough  money,  it  will  be  a 
time  that  their  business  ability  melted  away  or  by  no 
means  are  sharp.  Years  husbanding  of  domestic  work, 
handicapped  and  over-interfered  by  mistress,  their  mental 
agilities  are  reduced  to  the  lamentable  degree.  Yet  ma- 
tured by  these  undesirable  experience,  most  of  them  are 
quite  unconscious  of  this  outcome  as  little  by  little  sub- 
missive and  depending  habit  so  securely  rooted  within 
their  mind.  It  will  be  an  exceedingly  hard  to  adjust 
themselves  immediately  to  the  careful  and  shrewd  watch 
required  in  the  modern  business  enterprise,  though  they 
may  be  assisted  by  the  instinct  of  self-interest.  The 
sooner  they  quit  the  kitchen  the  better,  though  needless  to 
say,  there  are  a  few  exceptions. 

This  frank  statement  of  the  experiences  of  a  Jap- 
anese servant  in  America  throws  much  light  on  the 
difficulties  they  face  in  their  efforts  to  adapt  themselves 
to  work  of  this  nature.  Few  of  those  who  become 
domestic  servants  have  had  experience  in  such  work  in 
Japan.  They  usually  regard  themselves  as  above  the 


120  The  Japanese 


servant  class  and  accept  this  employment  only  as  a 
stepping-stone  to  something  better.  Those  who  are 
sensitive  and  ambitious  bitterly  resent  being  held  off  at 
a  distance  and  treated  as  an  inferior,  which  is  the  usual 
lot  of  servants  in  American  families. 

In  Japan,  the  servants  occupy  a  lowly  position,  but 
they  are  made  to  feel  that  they  belong  to  the  family 
and  share  in  its  interests.  Students  in  Japan,  who 
supplement  their  slender  income  by  working  for  their 
board  and  room  in  some  family,  may  perform  menial 
tasks  about  the  house,  but  they  are  called  shokkakn 
("table  guests  ")  and  not  servants,  and  are  treated  in 
such  a  way  that  they  do  not  feel  any  humiliation. 

A  striking  characteristic  of  the  industrial  life  of  the 
Far  East  is  the  attitude  of  personal  relationship  be- 
tween employers  and  workmen.  When  Japanese  are 
permitted  to  work  on  this  basis  in  American  homes, 
they  often  manifest  a  spirit  of  loyalty  that  arouses  the 
admiration  of  their  employers.  A  housewife  in  Cali- 
fornia wrote  : 

There  is  certainly  one  splendid  trait  that  Japanese 
inherit  almost  without  exception,  and  to  a  greater  degree 
than  almost  any  other  nation  —  that  is  loyalty.  I  could 
give  a  hundred  instances  of  unselfish  devotion  and  loyalty 
of  Japanese  servants  that  could  be  equaled  only  by  the 
splendid  record  of  the  older  generation  of  black  servants 
in  the  South.  One  cannot  treat  them  as  one  would  an 
English,  Swedish,  or  German  servant.1 

1  Farnham,  M.  H.,  "  Mr.  Ishiboshi,  My  Japanese  Servant  and 
Friend,"  the  American  Magazine,  Aug.,  1913,  p.  75. 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions        121 

Unfortunately  the  Japanese  do  not  usually  receive  the 
kind  of  treatment  that  would  develop  this  spirit  of 
loyalty,  and  as  a  consequence  there  result  misunder- 
standings and  friction  which  handicap  the  Japanese  in 
their  efforts  to  make  a  place  for  themselves  in  the 
industrial  life  of  our  nation. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  there  has 
been  a  change  in  the  type  of  the  Japanese  immigrants 
which  has  brought  about  a  considerable  modification  of 
their  economic  interests.  The  distinctively  student  ele- 
ment in  the  Japanese  immigration  has  become  over- 
shadowed by  the  large  number  of  farm  laborers  who 
naturally  seek  openings  in  agricultural  pursuits.  Under 
the  direction  of  small  contractors  and  bosses  of  their 
own  race,  the  Japanese  have  begun  to  spread  out  into 
the  rural  districts  and  secure  work  as  seasonal  farm 
laborers.  While  the  Japanese  had  found  employment 
to  a  certain  extent  in  agriculture  since  1887,  there  was 
no  mass  movement  along  this  line  until  Japanese  peas- 
ants formed  a  large  proportion  of  the  new  arrivals. 
According  to  an  investigation  made  in  1909,  sixty-five 
per  cent  of  the  Japanese  in  California  were  engaged  in 
agriculture,  fifteen  per  cent  in  domestic  service,  fifteen 
per  cent  in  business  enterprises  generally  connected 
with  supplying  the  wants  of  the  Japanese  communities, 
and  five  per  cent  were  students,  officials,  etc.1 

This  tendency  of  the  Japanese  to  take  up  farm  work 
cannot  be  explained  entirely  by  the  fact  that  the  ma- 
jority of  the  immigrants  have  been  drawn  from  the 

1  The  American  Japanese  Problem,  p.  322. 


122  The  Japanese  Invasion 

rural  classes  in  Japan.  Race  prejudice,  which  has 
limited  their  sphere  of  employment  along  many  lines, 
has  been  an  important  factor  in  the  rural  movement. 
With  the  exception  of  employment  in  domestic  service 
or  in  small  Japanese  business  establishments,  there  are 
very  few  openings  in  the  city  for  the  new  immigrants. 
About  the  only  way  for  them  to  get  a  start  in  their  new 
life  is  to  join  a  group  of  their  countrymen  under  a 
Japanese  boss  and  hire  themselves  out  as  railroad  or 
farm  laborers. 

The  hard,  monotonous  life  of  the  railroad  section 
hands  is  not  at  all  attractive  to  the  Japanese.  They 
prefer  farm  labor  and  usually  take  the  first  opportunity 
to  get  transferred  to  that  kind  of  work.  While  farm- 
ing conditions  and  methods  are  quite  different  from 
those  with  which  they  were  familiar  in  Japan,  the 
nature  of  the  work,  especially  in  the  fruit  and  vegetable 
industries,  is  more  congenial  to  them  than  to  white 
laborers.  The  Japanese  are  peculiarly  well  fitted  to 
do  hand  work  that  must  be  done  in  the  stooping  pos- 
ture. In  regard  to  this  Kawakami  says : 

The  picking  of  grapes,  strawberries,  and  vegetables,  and 
the  thinning  of  beets  and  celery  require  a  stooping  atti- 
tude that  is  not  natural  to  the  Caucasian.  To  the  Japa- 
nese, however,  stooping  or  kneeling  is  not  very  difficult, 
partly  because  of  his  short  stature  and  his  limber  body, 
partly  because  he  was  accustomed  while  in  his  native 
country  to  farming  without  machinery.  In  grape  picking, 
for  instance,  a  white  laborer  can  pick  only  one-third  of 
what  a  Japanese  harvests  in  a  day.  The  white  laborers, 
naturally  averse  to  this  kind  of  work,  reluctantly  if  not 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions        123 

gladly,  assigned  it  to  the  Japanese.  If  the  whites  were  to 
be  substituted  for  the  Japanese,  the  cost  of  producing 
these  fruits  and  vegetables  would  be  so  greatly  increased 
that  the  growers  would  have  to  abandon  the  industry.1 

In  farm  work  of  this  kind  the  Japanese  have  made 
a  secure  place  for  themselves  not  only  because  they  are 
so  well  adapted  to  such  work,  but  because  it  is  a  field 
in  which  white  laborers  do  not  care  to  compete. 

The  Japanese  at  present  have  very  little  to  do  with 
farms  where  crops  are  raised  which  require  the  use 
of  machinery.  Race  prejudice  limits  the  activities  of 
the  Japanese  even  in  farm  work.  They  have  not  yet 
been  permitted  to  become  serious  competitors  of  white 
men  in  the  kinds  of  farm  labor  that  the  latter  desire 
to  keep  for  themselves.  What  success  they  have  at- 
tained as  farm  laborers  has  largely  been  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  have  organized  themselves  in  groups 
under  the  control  of  a  Japanese  contractor  who  attends 
to  all  the  business  dealings  between  them  and  their 
employers.  While  this  method  makes  Japanese  labor 
popular  among  large  ranch  owners  because  of  its  easy 
availability,  it  deprives  the  Japanese  of  that  personal 
association  with  Americans  which  they  need  in  order 
to  learn  American  ways  of  living.  Their  work  in 
agriculture,  which  ought  to  be  a  strong  factor  in  their 
assimilation,  isolates  them  about  as  completely  as  does 
residence  in  the  Japanese  quarter  of  a  large  city. 

It  is  partly  because  of  the  prejudice  against  the  Jap- 
anese in  California  that  they  have  been  stimulated  to 
1  Asia  at  the  Door,  p.  136. 


124  The  Japanese  Invasion 

buy  or  lease  farms  and  thus  become  independent  pro- 
ducers. The  Japanese  are  too  ambitious  to  submit 
tamely  to  the  limitations  placed  upon  them.  \Yith  the 
exception  of  the  more  ignorant  classes  which  are  unable 
to  help  themselves,  they  possess  characteristics  which 
unfit  them  for  the  position  of  servile  laborers  in  the 
less  desirable  occupations.  They  are  confident  of  their 
own  ability  to  adapt  themselves  to  their  new  environ- 
ment and  are  quick  to  combine  to  promote  their  own 
interests.  Because  they  possess  qualities  like  these,  race 
prejudice  has  acted  as  a  stimulus  rather  than  as  a  deter- 
rent to  those  who  are  best  qualified  to  succeed. 

Confronting  a  situation  in  which  their  economic 
activities  were  seriously  restricted,  they  have  tried  to 
secure  greater  freedom  for  themselves  by  buying  land 
of  their  own.  Far  more  than  the  European  immigrants, 
they  have  been  made  to  feel  the  limitations  of  the  wage- 
earning  positions  because  their  employment  is  almost 
entirely  limited  to  the  less  desirable  kinds  of  work. 
This  fact,  together  with  their  ambition  to  rise,  has 
been  largely  responsible  for  their  aggressive  efforts  to 
secure  land.  The  recent  closing  of  this  door  of  oppor- 
tunity to  the  Japanese  in  California  has  therefore  been 
a  more  serious  blow  to  them  than  it  would  have  been 
to  other  immigrants  against  whom  there  is  less 
prejudice. 

Outside  of  the  western  states,  the  most  notable  ex- 
periment of  the  Japanese  in  American  agriculture  has 
been  going  on  in  the  rice  fields  near  Houston,  Texas. 
Unlike  the  ordinary  immigrants,  the  Japanese  who 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions        125 

started  this  colony  are  well-to-do  men  of  good  social 
position  who  came  to  America  with  sufficient  capital  to 
buy  at  once  farms  of  their  own.  Some  of  them  had 
no  farming  experience  in  Japan,  but  were  journalists 
and  business  men  who,  for  various  reasons,  invested 
their  money  in  Texas  land  expecting  to  make  it  their 
permanent  home.  As  far  as  possible  their  own  coun- 
trymen are  employed  to  supply  the  labor  necessary  to 
run  their  farms.  Negroes  seem  to  be  so  thoroughly 
disliked  that  they  are  seldom  employed  by  the  Japanese. 
In  regard  to  their  success  and  their  adaptability  to 
American  conditions,  Kawakami  says : 

None  of  the  Japanese  farmers  in  Texas  had  ever  seen 
such  heavy  machines  or  handled  such  heavy  teams  as  are 
used  on  American  farms,  yet  these  colonizers,  after  a 
brief  experience  of  a  year  or  two,  are  already  thoroughly 
at  home  with  those  instruments,  without  at  the  same  time 
losing  any  of  their  characteristic  individuality.  Aside 
from  their  color,  these  Japanese  immigrants  closely  re- 
semble the  Americans.  They  live  in  American  houses, 
wear  American  clothes,  read  American  books  and  news- 
papers, and  subsist  on  American  food  with  a  slight  tinge 
of  Japanese  cookery.  In  intelligence  and  ingenuity  they 
are  not  excelled  by  any  ordinary  American  farmers.  Their 
capital  is  not  large,  ranging  from  $5,000  to  $10,000.  With 
strict  economy  and  vigilant  frugality,  however,  they 
accomplish  more  than  their  American  rivals  possibly  could 
with  the  same  amount  of  money.1 

As  far  as  their  adaptability  to  American  occupations 
is  concerned,  the  Japanese  have  not  laid  themselves 

1  Kawakami,  K.  K.,  "  Japanese  on  American  Farms,"  the  Inde- 
pendent, 59 : 964. 


126  The  Japanese  Invasion 

open  to  serious  criticism.  They  have  proved  themselves 
to  be  efficient  in  the  lines  of  work  in  which  they  have 
been  permitted  to  engage.  Even  their  enemies  agree 
that  they  are  thrifty,  industrious,  capable,  and  ambi- 
tious. From  the  economic  standpoint  the  chief  charge 
brought  against  the  Japanese  has  been  their  tendency 
to  live  below  the  American  standard  of  living.  It  is 
claimed  that  one  important  factor  in  their  success  is 
their  willingness  to  put  up  with  conditions  that  the 
white  man  will  not  tolerate. 

Without  doubt  the  Japanese  have  been  less  success- 
ful in  adapting  themselves  to  American  standards  of 
living  than  to  American  methods  of  work.  Accus- 
tomed as  they  were  in  Japan  to  live  on  what  we  regard 
as  a  low  economic  scale,  they  have  faced  in  America 
the  temptation  to  increase  their  savings  by  retaining 
their  old  standards  as  far  as  possible.  Cheap  living 
and  long  hours  they  regard  as  a  matter  of  course.  Their 
simple  diet  suits  their  taste  better  than  the  more  expen- 
sive American  food.  Long  hours  of  labor  in  Japan  are 
the  ordinary  thing.  The  farmers  toil  from  sunrise  to 
sunset  while  in  the  small  shops  and  factories  work  fre- 
quently goes  on  from  early  in  the  morning  until  as  late 
as  ten  or  eleven  o'clock  at  night.  The  laborers  have 
never  learned  to  protest  against  bad  working  condi- 
tions. That  unscrupulous  American  employers  should 
take  advantage  of  these  facts  and  employ  Japanese  on 
terms  with  which  Americans  could  not  compete  is  to 
be  expected.  It  is  still  more  unfortunate  that  even 
after  most  of  the  inequalities  in  wages  have  been  abol- 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions        127 

ished,  many  of  the  Japanese  still  tend  to  live  on  a  lower 
economic  scale  than  their  wages  would  seem  to  justify. 
The  rigid  economy  practiced  by  the  ordinary  Japanese 
laborer  in  America  is  thus  described  by  Kawakami : 

Wherever  he  may  be  employed,  he  has  reduced  subsist- 
ence into  a  science.  Not  the  cost  of  food  alone  enters 
into  his  scientific  solution  of  the  problem,  but  his  entire 
existence  is  regulated  on  a  basis  of  rigid  economy,  so 
that  he  reduces  the  expenditure  for  essential  subsistence 
to  approximately  twenty  per  cent  of  his  average  wages. 
He  practices  economy  on  the  basis  of  his  earning  power 
and  does  not  permit  his  expenditure  to  increase  in  the 
same  ratio  as  his  earnings  may  increase.  The  Japanese 
earning  from  $1.25  to  $1.50  a  day  will  spend  from  twenty 
to  thirty  cents  a  day  for  subsistence,  while  the  average 
maximum  cost  of  subsistence  for  those  earning  from 
$1.75  to  $2.50  is  thirty-five  cents.  Though  spending  so 
small  a  portion  of  his  earnings  for  subsistence,  he  is 
enabled  to  subsist  comfortably  by  eliminating  unnecessary 
waste.1 

While  this  economy  is  commendable  from  the  stand- 
point of  thrift,  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  it  is  a  scale 
of  living  with  which  Americans  cannot  compete.  To 
the  Japanese  peasant,  however,  this  amount  of  expen- 
diture seems  amply  sufficient  when  compared  with  his 
former  mode  of  life  in  Japan.  The  following  quota- 
tion from  a  Japanese  writer  shows  the  wide  gap  be- 
tween the  standards  of  living  in  America  and  in  the 
Far  East : 

1  American-Japanese  Relations,  pp.  349-5O. 


128  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Though  rice  is  considered  the  staff  of  life  in  Japan,  it 
is  not  freely  indulged  in  by  the  peasants  who  raise  it.  The 
poorer  classes  cannot  afford  to  take  unmixed  rice ;  there- 
fore they  boil  with  it  cheaper  barley  and  millet.  In  some 
southern  provinces  sweet  potatoes  form  the  chief  part  of 

daily  food A  laboring  man  can  get  his  food  for 

about  twenty  sen  a  day,  and  he  can  feed  his  family  (wife 
and  a  couple  of  children)  on  an  additional  thirty  sen.1 
In  fact,  if  he  makes  eighty  sen  and  his  wife  thirty  sen,  a 
sum  total  of  a  yen  and  ten  sen  a  day,  they  can  keep  a 
little  house  with  two  rooms,  paying  a  rent  of  three  yen 
per  month,  read  newspapers  (for  the  humblest  can  read), 
take  daily  baths  (a  racial  necessity),  send  their  children 
to  school  (for  education  is  compulsory),  and  put  in  the 
savings  bank  two  or  three  yen  a  month.  Does  this  sound 
delectably  Arcadian?  And  yet  of  families  like  these  the 
duties  of  modern  citizenship  are  demanded,  viz.,  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes,  service  in  the  army,  and  attendance  at 
school  on  the  part  of  the  children.2 

While  the  low  social  and  economic  status  out  of 
which  many  of  the  Japanese  immigrants  have  come 
does  influence  their  reaction  to  American  environment, 
there  is  noticeable  a  growing  tendency  on  the  part  of 
those  who  can  afford  it  to  live  according  to  American 
standards.  In  so  far  as  they  have  failed,  it  must  be 
recognized  that  this  has  largely  been  because  of  eco- 
nomic reasons  and  not  because  of  a  dislike  of  American 
food  and  ways  of  living.  Within  recent  years  the  Jap- 
anese have  been  insisting  on  high  wages  to  such  an 

1  A  sen  equals  one-half  cent  and  a  yen  one-half  dollar,  approxi- 
mately. 

*  The  Japanese  Nation,  p.  216. 


Reaction  to  Economic  Conditions         129 

extent  that  the  charge  of  underbidding  can  no  longer 
be  made  against  them.  They  have  even  availed  them- 
selves of  the  western  method  of  strikes,  and  as  they 
are  highly  organized  they  usually  win  the  point  for 
which  they  are  contending. 

When  due  consideration  is  given  to  the  enforced 
segregation  of  the  majority  of  the  Japanese  in  America, 
it  can  readily  be  seen  that  they  have  made  considerable 
progress  in  their  attempts  to  compete  with  American 
workmen.  Probably  no  other  people,  handicapped  as 
the  Japanese  have  been  by  race  prejudice,  could  have 
surpassed  them  in  making  so  large  a  place  for  them- 
selves in  American  economic  life. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ORGANIZATION   AND   SOLIDARITY   OF   JAPANESE 
IMMIGRANTS 

ONE  of  the  striking  characteristics  of  the  Japanese 
in  America  is  the  thoroughness  of  their  organi- 
zation. Practically  all  the  Japanese  immigrants  are 
bound  together  in  groups  of  some  kind,  ranging  in  size 
and  importance  from  laborers'  gangs  and  local  guilds 
to  a  national  association.  In  their  tendency  to  organize 
and  in  their  ready  response  to  group  control,  the  Jap- 
anese have  been  equaled  by  few,  if  any,  of  the  Euro- 
pean immigrant  groups.  Probably  the  only  immigrants 
who  have  surpassed  them  in  this  respect  are  the  Chi- 
nese, whose  marked  leaning  toward  exclusiveness  has 
served  to  bind  them  very  closely  together. 

Among  the  various  Japanese  organizations,  the  one 
that  is  most  helpful  to  the  mass  of  the  Japanese 
immigrants,  who  belong  to  the  laboring  class,  is  the 
"gang"  system,  or  the  organization  of  laborers  into 
groups  under  a  Japanese  boss  or  contractor.  When  a 
Japanese  laborer  wishes  to  secure  work,  he  does  not 
usually  apply  to  employers  directly.  If  this  were  neces- 
sary, language  difficulties  together  with  his  ignorance 
of  local  conditions  and  rates  of  wages  would  seriously 
handicap  him  and  result  in  dissatisfaction  for  both 
parties  concerned.  The  simplest  method  for  him  to 

130 


Organisation  and  Solidarity  131 

follow  is  to  join  a  group  of  his  countrymen  under  a 
Japanese  boss  who  takes  entire  charge  of  all  negotia- 
tions with  the  employers.  These  contractors  usually 
have  full  supervision  and  control  of  their  men,  not  only 
paying  their  wages  and  overseeing  their  work  but  con- 
ducting lodging  houses  where  the  men  live  on  the 
cooperative  plan.  Some  of  these  bosses  have  under 
them  small  groups  consisting  of  about  a  dozen  men, 
while  others  control  hundreds  of  laborers.  These  or- 
ganized gangs  of  Japanese  have  proved  very  acceptable 
to  employers  because  it  offers  them  an  adequate  labor 
supply  with  the  least  amount  of  trouble  on  their  part. 
In  the  report  of  the  Immigration  Commission  this  fact 
was  forcibly  brought  out  in  these  words : 

The  convenience  to  ranchers  of  this  organization  of 
Asiatics  has  been  one  of  the  most  important  things  in 
helping  the  Asiatics  to  displace  white  men  where  the  latter 
were  formerly  employed,  and  to  prevent  the  employment 
of  white  men  where  Asiatics  were  already  established  in 
the  industry.  This  "gang"  system  has  greatly  appealed 
to  employers  in  all  agricultural  communities  requiring 
large  numbers  of  hand  workers,  and  in  some  industries 
where  the  work  is  especially  disagreeable  and  especially 
large  numbers  are  required,  as  in  the  beet  fields  and  vine- 
yards, it  has  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  continuation  of  the  industry.1 

The  success  of  this  "  gang  "  system  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  both  employers  and  Japanese  laborers  has 
been  largely  brought  about  by  the  efficiency  of  the 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Commission,  24 : 18. 


132  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Japanese  contractors.  These  men  watch  very  carefully 
the  state  of  the  labor  market  and  make  a  survey  of  the 
important  places  where  there  is  likely  to  be  a  demand 
for  Japanese  labor.  They  keep  themselves  fully  in- 
formed of  the  number  of  acres  under  cultivation  and 
of  the  probable  yield  of  the  different  crops.  They  also 
make  it  their  business  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  large 
ranch  owners  in  order  that  they  may  take  advantage 
of  every  opportunity  to  get  control  of  the  labor 
supply.1 

This  organization  of  Japanese  labor  is  even  carried 
out  to  the  extent  of  eliminating  competition  between 
the  different  groups  of  Japanese  laborers.  Each  gang 
has  its  territory  assigned  to  it  and  is  not  allowed  to 
invade  a  district  belonging  to  another  group.  Efforts 
have  been  made  by  different  bosses  to  get  together  at 
the  opening  of  the  seaspn  and  agree  upon  a  scale  of 
prices  so  as  to  avoid  underbidding.  This  thoroughness 
of  their  organization  has  frequently  enabled  the  Jap- 
anese to  drive  out  of  a  community  competing  laborers 
of  other  nationalities.  The  usual  method  followed  was 
to  secure  contracts  by  underbidding  the  laborers  already 
in  the  field  and  then  later  to  raise  the  price  to  its 
normal  level.  Within  recent  years  the  Japanese  con- 
tractors have  found  it  increasingly  difficult  to  secure 
enough  laborers  to  maintain  effective  organizations. 
The  exclusion  agreement  has  cut  short  the  supply  of 
new  laborers  while  thousands  of  the  old  immigrants 
have  either  gone  into  business  for  themselves  or  have 

1  American-Japanese  Relations,  p.  350. 


Organization  and  Solidarity  133 

secured  steady  employment  on  Japanese  farms.  But 
in  spite  of  these  handicaps,  organized  Japanese  labor 
is  still  an  important  factor  in  many  of  the  agricultural 
communities  in  California.1 

Another  phase  of  the  organization  of  Japanese  la- 
borers is  seen  in  their  arrangements  for  cooperative 
housekeeping.  As  board  is  seldom  given  them  by  their 
white  employers  on  the  large  ranches,  they  are  com- 
pelled to  provide  for  their  own  subsistence.  In  case  the 
Japanese  contractor  does  not  furnish  their  board  at  a 
fixed  rate,  they  buy  their  own  supplies,  appoint  mem- 
bers of  the  group  to  do  different  tasks,  and  all  share 
equally  in  the  actual  cost.  A  recent  writer  gives  the 
following  description  of  this  kind  of  housekeeping  as 
carried  on  by  Japanese  laborers : 

One  of  the  best  samples  of  housekeeping  I  have  ever 
seen  was  done  by  the  140  Japanese  who  lived  in  the  House 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  in  South  Omaha.  A  board  of 
managers  had  charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  group.  The 
secretary  of  the  group  kept  all  accounts  and  transacted 
all  business  with  outsiders ;  the  commissary  had  charge  of 
the  feeding  of  the  group ;  the  cooking,  washing,  and  scrub- 
bing were  systematized ;  and  each  member  was  bound  by 
a  set  of  rules  that  secured  peace  and  order.  The  men 
were  constantly  changing,  some  going  and  others  coming ; 
but  the  total  number  of  the  colony  remained  about  the 
same.  Whatever  differences  and  difficulties  arose,  they 
were  settled  within  the  group.  If  any  member  got  into 
trouble,  the  colony  was  back  of  him  to  the  fullest  extent. 
It  was  the  most  perfect  organization  on  the  communal 
basis  I  have  seen,  and,  as  far  as  I  know,  nothing  like  it  is 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Commission ,24:  591-94. 


134  The  Japanese  Invasion 

found  in  America  among  the  peoples  of  southeastern 
Europe.1 

This  efficiency  in  organization  is  found  not  only 
among  the  Japanese  farm  laborers  but  also  among  those 
engaged  in  farming  on  their  own  account.  In  commu- 
nities where  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  Japanese 
farmers,  there  have  been  organized  Japanese  produ- 
cers' associations  which  include  in  their  membership  the 
majority  of  the  farmers  of  that  race.  These  organiza- 
tions are  designed  to  protect  the  Japanese  against  un- 
just discrimination  in  the  disposal  of  their  crops  and 
to  advance  the  interests  of  the  Japanese  community  in 
every  possible  way.  They  give  out  information  about 
American  methods  of  agriculture  especially  as  they 
apply  to  local  conditions ;  select  tenants  for  farms  that 
can  be  leased;  advise  prospective  tenants  in  regard  to 
available  land  and  in  some  instances  have  taken  steps 
to  control  the  acreage  and  marketing  of  the  crops.2 
Besides  these  direct  economic  aims,  others  of  a  more 
general  nature  are  included  in  their  statements  of  the 
purpose  of  the  association.  Thus  in  one  case  the  object 
of  the  organization  is  said  to  be  — 

....  to  advance  the  interests,  uphold  the  dignity,  and 
protect  the  happiness  of  the  members  and  of  the  Japanese 

in  general To  assist  in  improving  and  ameliorating 

their  moral,  social,  and  economic  conditions To 

maintain    and    insure   cordiality   between   landlord   and 
tenant,  thus  guaranteeing  against  all  unnecessary  mis- 

1  Roberts,  P.,  The  New  Immigration,  p.  124. 

2  Report  of  Immigration  Commission,  24 :  396-97. 


Organisation  and  Solidarity  135 

understanding  between  them In  case  of  dispute 

between  landlord  and  tenant,  to  act  as  arbitrators  and 
mediators  with  a  view  to  seeing  justice  done  to  both  par- 
ties  To  take  a  united  and  decisive  stand  against  all 

unscrupulous  parties  and  irresponsible  tenants To 

make  a  concerted  effort  to  procure  for  this  section  the  best 
quality  of  Japanese  labor  available,  in  order  more  effectu- 
ally to  develop  the  fertile  bottoms  now  so  scantily  popu- 
lated.1 

The  Japanese  who  reside  in  the  large  western  cities 
are  also  highly  organized.  Very  few  of  their  business 
men  hold  membership  in  the  American  business  men's 
organizations.  Usually  they  form  their  own  associa- 
tions which  are  designed  to  promote  the  business  enter- 
prises in  which  they  are  engaged.  Their  most  effective 
city  organizations  are  those  which  are  limited  to  one 
special  business,  trade,  or  industry,  such  as  the  Board- 
ing and  Lodging  House  Keepers'  Association,  Barbers' 
Union,  Tailors'  and  Dressmakers'  Union,  Suit  Clean- 
ing Union,  Restaurant  Keepers'  Association,  Express- 
men's Union,  etc.  As  an  illustration  of  the  activities 
of  these  organizations  the  work  of  the  Japanese  Bar- 
bers' Union  of  San  Francisco  may  be  cited.  The 
members  of  this  organization  pay  fifty  cents  per  month 
as  dues.  Regulations  are  made  fixing  the  time  for 
opening  and  closing  the  shops  and  the  scale  of  prices. 
Sunday  closing  is  enforced  to  conform  to  the  city  ordi- 
nance. The  matter  of  apprenticeship  is  kept  under 
careful  control.  The  organization  also  serves  as  a 

1  The  American  Japanese  Problem,  p.  97. 


136  The  Japanese  Invasion 

mutual  benefit  society.  In  case  a  member,  because  of  ill 
health,  is  compelled  to  return  to  Japan,  the  money  is 
provided  to  pay  his  fare.  If  any  member  is  disabled 
by  sickness  longer  than  a  month,  an  assessment  is  made 
to  provide  for  his  support.  Upon  the  death  of  a  mem- 
ber his  family  is  given  a  sum  of  money  equivalent  to 
the  fare  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama.1 

Strong  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  Japanese 
to  get  them  to  join  their  trade  guild  or  business  asso- 
ciation. Usually  they  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  do 
so  because  of  assistance  given  in  time  of  sickness  or  of 
financial  embarrassment.  The  success  which  the  Jap- 
anese have  attained  in  city  employments  and  in  busi- 
ness has  been  greatly  promoted  by  the  thoroughness 
of  their  organizations,  which  have  minimized  competi- 
tion among  themselves  and  have  enabled  them  to 
present  a  united  front  to  the  forces  that  have  been 
hindering  their  advancement. 

Another  form  of  organization  popular  among  the 
Japanese  is  the  prefectural  club  which  limits  its  mem- 
bership to  those  who  have  come  from  the  particular 
province  in  Japan  that  the  club  represents.  Variations 
in  dialect  and  in  social  characteristics,  which  are  espe- 
cially noticeable  among  the  lower  classes  in  the  differ- 
ent provinces,  together  with  the  fellow  feeling  which 
naturally  arises  because  of  a  common  birthplace  have 
tended  to  draw  many  Japanese  together  in  these  pre- 
fectural societies.  In  1909,  twenty-seven  different 
prefectures  were  represented  by  these  organizations  in 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Commission,  24 :  25-29. 


Organisation  and  Solidarity  137 

San  Francisco.  In  general  they  serve  as  centers  of 
social  life  and  give  assistance  to  those  of  their  number 
who  may  be  in  need. 

Probably  the  most  important  and  influential  of  the 
Japanese  organizations  in  America  are  the  Japanese 
associations  which  have  been  established  in  more  than 
fifty  cities  and  communities.  In  each  center  of  Jap- 
anese population  there  exists  one  of  these  associations 
which  serves  as  a  headquarters  for  the  Japanese  com- 
munity as  well  as  a  clearing-house  for  all  things  of 
interest  to  them.  Each  association  is  controlled  by  a 
board  of  directors  and  employs  at  least  one  salaried 
secretary.  All  of  these  associations  are  federated  in  a 
central  organization  called  the  Japanese  Association  of 
America,  which  has  its  offices  in  San  Francisco.  The 
purpose  of  these  associations  as  set  forth  in  their  con- 
stitutions is  rather  general  and  vague.  The  Japanese 
association  in  San  Francisco  states  its  aim  as  follows : 
"to  elevate  the  character  of  Japanese  immigrants;  to 
promote  association  between  Japanese  and  Americans ; 
to  promote  commerce,  agriculture,  and  other  in- 
dustries; and  to  further  Japanese  interests."  In  a 
number  of  cases  the  incentive  to  form  these  organiza- 
tions was  the  prejudice  against  the  Japanese,  which 
made  them  feel  that  they  must  stand  together  in  order 
to  protect  their  rights. 

Their  work,  however,  has  by  no  means  been  re- 
stricted to  protests  against  unjust  treatment.  These 
associations,  which  include  in  their  membership  the  best 
and  most  progressive  leaders  of  the  Japanese,  have 


138  The  Japanese  Invasion 

made  special  efforts  to  elevate  the  moral  standards  of 
the  Japanese  immigrants  and  to  eliminate  some  of  the 
objectionable  features  of  Japanese  life.  In  Fresno, 
California,  the  Japanese  association  in  1908  took  the 
initiative  in  a  vigorous  campaign  against  the  Chinese 
gambling  dens  and  the  Japanese  houses  of  prostitution 
which  were  doing  a  flourishing  business  in  that  city. 
The  city  authorities,  who  had  been  acting  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  wrongdoing  of  the  Asiatics  was  of 
no  special  consequence  so  long  as  it  was  confined  to 
their  own  communities,  were  aroused  to  action  by  the 
demands  of  the  Japanese  and  made  strong  efforts  to 
abate  the  evil.  The  Japanese  associations  have  always 
been  willing  to  cooperate  with  the  American  authorities 
in  securing  the  observance  of  law  among  the  Japanese 
immigrants.  In  some  cases  they  have  even  deported 
Japanese  whose  evil  conduct  was  bringing  the  Japanese 
community  into  disrepute.  Their  secretaries  keep  care- 
ful statistical  records  of  all  Japanese  living  in  their 
jurisdiction  and  frequently  cooperate  with  their  consul 
by  supplying  him  with  information  about  their  coun- 
trymen. 

An  interesting  phase  of  the  work  undertaken  by 
these  associations  is  the  part  they  take  in  the  so-called 
"picture-bride"  movement.  A  Japanese  in  America 
who  wishes  to  secure  a  wife  from  Japan  without  the 
expense  of  crossing  the  ocean  for  her,  is  required  to 
make  application  to  the  association  of  which  he  is  a 
member.  The  secretary  of  the  association  then  care- 
fully investigates  the  financial  standing  and  moral  char- 


Organization  and  Solidarity  139 

acter  of  the  prospective  bridegroom  and  makes  a  full 
report  to  the  Japanese  consulate.  If  the  report  is  sat- 
isfactory, the  consul  informs  the  Tokyo  authorities, 
who  then  issue  a  passport  to  the  girl  who  has  consented 
to  come  to  America  as  a  bride.  Because  of  the  careful 
cooperation  of  these  secretaries  who  are  in  a  position 
to  know  the  Japanese  in  their  jurisdiction,  the  attempts 
of  a  few  Japanese  to  use  the  "  picture-bride  "  movement 
as  a  means  of  importing  women  for  immoral  purposes 
have  been  very  largely  foiled.  The  amount  of  work 
and  responsibility  involved  in  these  investigations  of 
Japanese  bridegrooms  can  be  seen  by  the  fact  that 
in  1914  more  than  twenty-five  hundred  "picture- 
brides  "  arrived  in  the  United  States  and  Hawaii.1  It 
is  claimed  that  the  secretaries  exercise  great  care  in 
deciding  about  the  fitness  and  ability  of  a  man  to  sup- 
port a  family,  and  that  they  rigidly  reject  all  unworthy 
applicants.  Since  this  method  of  arranging  for  a  mar- 
riage is  not  so  different  from  the  ordinary  Japanese 
procedure,  it  seems  more  satisfactory  to  them  than  it 
would  to  an  American  and  results  generally  in  a 

1  According  to  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  General 
of  Immigration  for  1914,  the  number  of  "  picture-brides "  who 
arrived  at  the  port  of  Honolulu  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1914,  was  1,407;  at  Seattle,  511 ;  the  exact  number  who  arrived  at 
San  Francisco  is  not  stated.  However,  the  total  number  of  fe- 
males who  arrived  at  this  port  was  1,845,  of  whom  the  report  says 
that  the  "  picture-brides  are  the  predominating  factor." 

The  Commissioner  General's  report  for  1915  does  not  state  the 
exact  number  of  picture-brides  for  that  year.  It  is  estimated  that 
ninety  per  cent,  or  more  than  3,000,  of  the  Japanese  females  en- 
tering continental  United  States  in  1915  came  in  the  capacity  of 
picture-brides. 


140  The  Japanese  Invasion 

permanent  union.1  These  marriages  are  undoubtedly 
doing  much  to  give  a  permanent  and  settled  character 
to  the  Japanese  communities  and  are  occurring  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  produce  a  substantial  increase  in  our 
Japanese  population. 

The  Japanese  who  have  settled  in  the  large  cities  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  race  preju- 
dice against  Orientals  is  less  in  evidence  than  in  the 
West,  have  also  found  it  to  their  advantage  to  organize 
themselves  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  The  Japanese 
editor  of  the  New  York  Japan  Review  describes  as  fol- 
lows their  association  which  has  been  established  in 
New  York  City : 

A  new  society,  the  Nippon  Jin  Kai,  "  Association  of  the 
Japanese,"  has  recently  been  organized  with  headquarters 
in  New  York  to  foster  friendliness  and  cooperation 
among  the  resident  Japanese  as  well  as  to  strengthen  the 
friendly  ties  which  bind  the  people  of  Japan  and  of  the 
United  States.  The  Nippon  Jin  Kai  will  take  cognizance 

1  Dr.  Gulick  states  that  only  about  one  per  cent  of  these  mar- 
riages end  in  divorce.  (The  American  Japanese  Problem,  p.  95.) 
The  Commissioner  of  Immigration  presents  a  different  opinion  in 
a  recent  report :  "  Many  of  the  '  proxy '  brides  conclude  shortly 
after  arrival  that  they  have  made  a  bad  bargain  and  desert  their 
husbands,  and  sooner  or  later  enter  upon  an  immoral  life.  Realiz- 
ing this,  the  consul  for  this  district  is  endeavoring  to  discourage 

the  bringing  of  'proxy '  brides  to  the  United  States In  view 

of  this  I  would  recommend  that  competent  officers  who  under- 
stand the  Japanese  language  make  investigations  occasionally  in 
order  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  these  '  proxy '  wives  are  living 
with  their  husbands.  They  might  also  investigate  as  to  the  occu- 
pations of  recent  female  arrivals.  I  believe  the  results  would  be 
somewhat  surprising."  Report  of  the  Commissioner  General  of 
Immigration  for  1914,  p.  305. 


Organisation  and  Solidarity  141 

only  of  such  matters  as  affect  the  general  interests  of 
Japanese,  and  will  have  no  connection  with  official  acts  or 
opinions  of  the  Japanese  government.  With  this  new 
society  has  been  embodied  the  Kio  Sai  Kai,  "  Mutual  Aid 
Society/'  organized  here  a  half-dozen  years  ago;  and  the 
new  inclusive  organization,  among  its  other  beneficent 
activities,  will  aim  to  help,  out  of  its  membership 

funds,  any  Japanese  who  are  ill  or  in  other  need 

As  Japanese  and  American  interests  become  more  and 
more  interwoven,  there  will  naturally  arise  manifold  prob- 
lems directly  or  indirectly  affecting  both  peoples.  In 
facing  these  problems,  the  Japanese  who  have  organized 
this  Association  feel  that  it  is  incumbent  upon  them  to 
take  concerted  instead  of  individual  action.  They  also 
feel  the  importance  of  bettering  their  status  —  moral, 
mental,  physical  —  by  helpful  counsel.  With  such  con- 
victions in  mind  the  members  of  the  society  will  strive  for 
the  promotion  of  welfare,  the  safeguarding  of  rights,  and 
the  better  understanding  of  international  questions.1 

The  two  leading  Japanese  organizations  in  Chicago 
are  the  Mutual  Aid  Society,  and  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Institute.  Mr.  Shimazu,  who  is  the  efficient 
secretary  of  the  latter,  is  doing  an  important  work  for 
the  Japanese  in  that  city.  The  institute,  which  serves 
as  the  headquarters  for  the  Japanese  residing  in  and 
passing  through  Chicago,  attempts  various  kinds  of 
work.  Lodging  and  board  are  provided  as  far  as  facil- 
ities permit;  employment  is  secured  for  those  out  of 
work;  a  reading  room  is  maintained  which  is  supplied 
with  both  Japanese  and  English  books  and  periodicals ; 
a  tennis  court,  billiard  room,  and  other  facilities  for 

1  Editorial,  New  York  Japan  Review,  May,  1914,  p.  194. 


i4J  The  Japanese  Invasion 

recreation  are  provided;  religious  services  are  held 
every  Sunday  in  the  Japanese  language;  assistance  is 
^iven  to  strangers  passing  through  the  city;  and  the 
secretary  by  frequent  visitation  keeps  in  touch  with  the 
three  hundred  or  more  Japanese  living  in  Chicago  and 
vicinity. 

Religious  organizations  not  only  of  this  type  but 
of  various  kinds  play  an  important  part  in  promoting 
the  solidarity  of  the  Japanese  immigrants.  In  their 
religious  activities  the  Japanese  are  seldom  associated 
with  American  Christians.  In  order  to  provide  for 
their  religious  needs,  special  Christian  missions  are 
established  with  Japanese  pastors  in  charge.  Language 
difficulties  and  the  prejudice  against  the  Japanese 
make  necessary  the  segregation,  as  far  as  religious 
worship  is  concerned,  of  that  element  of  our  Japa- 
nese population  which  is  most  in  sympathy  with  Amer- 
ican ideals.  In  regard  to  this  religious  work  which 
is  being  carried  on  by  American  churches,  the 
report  of  the  Immigration  Commission  makes  this 
pointed  observation :  "  These  missions  are  for  the  Jap- 
anese alone,  a  recognition  of  a  difference  between  them 
and  other  races  and  a  condition  which  lessens  their 
value  as  an  assimilative  force."  1  The  number  of  Jap- 
anese Christian  missions  now  maintained  in  California 
is  forty-eight,  with  a  total  membership  of  about  twenty- 
five  hundred,  or  four  per  cent  of  the  Japanese  popula- 
tion in  the  state. 

The  great  majority  of  the  Japanese  in  America  who 

1  Report  of  Immigration  Commission,  23 :  163. 


Organisation  and  Solidarity  143 

manifest  any  religious  interest  are  more  or  less  closely 
identified  with  the  Buddhist  religion.  The  Buddhists 
in  Japan  and  more  especially  those  of  the  Shin  sect 
have  been  very  active  in  sending  priests  to  America  to 
carry  on  their  propaganda  among  their  own  people. 
In  California  there  are  nineteen  temples  and  twenty- 
one  priests  with  a  steadily  increasing  constituency. 
Buddhist  missions  are  also  located  in  Seattle,  Portland, 
Salt  Lake  City,  and  Ogden,  and  very  successful  work 
is  being  carried  on  in  Hawaii.  To  a  considerable 
extent  the  Buddhist  priests  have  adapted  their  methods 
of  work  to  American- conditions.  Their  buildings  are 
usually  a  radical  departure  from  the  traditional  type  of 
Buddhist  temple,  and  their  religious  activities  are  by 
no  means  limited  to  the  reading  of  Sutras  and  their 
customary  acts  of  worship.  An  American  Buddhist 
plant  with  its  gymnasium,  library,  auditorium,  and 
various  rooms  for  educational  and  social  purposes 
bears  little  resemblance  to  the  picturesque  temples  in 
Japan,  so  far  removed  from  the  active  life  of  the 
people. 

The  Buddhist  priests  have  not  only  succeeded  in 
adapting  themselves  to  the  new  situation,  but  have  still 
further  tried  to  promote  their  cause  by  an  appeal  to 
patriotism.  Buddhism  and  patriotic  devotion  are  joined 
together  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  appear  that  the 
rejection  of  their  old  religion  would  mean  disloyalty 
to  their  country.1  Such  an  appeal  exerts  considerable 
influence  among  the  more  ignorant  and  lower  classes 

1  Asia  at  the  Door,  p.  233. 


144  The  Japanese  Invasion 

of  immigrants  who  form  the  largest  part  of  the 
Buddhist  constituency.  In  these  and  in  various  other 
ways  the  Japanese  are  making  a  determined  effort  to 
perpetuate  their  native  religion  on  American  soil,  a 
fact  of  considerable  importance  in  promoting  the  soli- 
darity of  the  Japanese  immigrants. 

Another  important  phase  of  the  organized  activities 
of  the  Japanese  immigrants  is  seen  in  their  efforts  to 
give  their  children  a  Japanese  education.  In  British 
Columbia,  where  there  is  no  compulsory  public  school 
law,  the  Japanese  maintain  their  own  schools  patterned 
after  the  schools  of  Japan,  with  the  instruction  in  the 
Japanese  language.  The  public  schools  of  British  Co- 
lumbia are  open  to  the  Japanese,  but  the  majority  of  the 
Japanese  parents  prefer  to  give  their  children  a  Jap- 
anese education.  In  the  United  States,  where  there  is  a 
compulsory  public  school  law,  the  Japanese  very  will- 
ingly send  their  children  to  the  public  schools.  In  order, 
however,  to  provide  for  the  Japanese  side  of  their  edu- 
cation, they  have  established  supplementary  schools 
which  usually  hold  their  sessions  for  two  or  three  hours 
in  the  afternoon  after  the  regular  schools  are  closed, 
and  give  instruction  in  Japanese  language  and  compo- 
sition as  well  as  in  Japanese  history,  geography,  and 
ethics.  Mr.  Kawakami  justifies  the  existence  of  these 
supplementary  schools  on  the  ground  that  they  are 
performing  a  real  service  by  giving  instruction  in  sub- 
jects which  are  neglected  in  the  American  curriculum. 
In  his  opinion  these  Japanese  schools  are  not  open  to 
the  criticism  that  they  interfere  with  the  assimilation 


Organization  and  Solidarity  145 

of  the  Japanese  children.1  Others  hold  that  they  do 
teach  a  narrow  patriotism  and  cause  the  Japanese  to 
be  regarded  with  more  disfavor  by  their  American 
neighbors.  In  the  spring  of  1913  a  prominent  Japanese 
resident  of  Seattle  paid  a  short  visit  to  Japan,  and  while 
there  met  an  old  American  friend  with  whom  he  dis- 
cussed topics  of  mutual  interest.  In  the  course  of  their 
conversation,  the  Japanese- American  problem  naturally 
came  up  for  consideration,  and  upon  this  subject  the 
Japanese  expressed  himself  as  follows : 

The  Japanese  must  bear  their  share  of  the  blame  for  the 
race  prejudice  against  them,  which  is  so  often  aroused 
by  their  attitude  toward  American  institutions.  For  in- 
stance, I  have  often  been  chided  by  my  Japanese  friends 
in  Seattle  for  not  sending  my  children  to  the  Japanese 
school,  where  they  would  be  taught  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage and  loyalty  to  the  Emperor  and  reverence  for  Japa- 
nese traditions.  I  always  reply  to  them  that  I  am  an 
American  and  that  I  want  my  children  to  grow  up  as 
American  children.  Furthermore,  the  teachers  in  the 
Japanese  schools  are  likely  to  be  Buddhist  priests  or 
acolytes,  who  know  just  enough  English  to  enable  them  to 
swear.  They  smoke  cigarettes  in  the  schoolroom  and  set 
a  bad  moral  example  to  the  children.  Through  their 
desire  to  prevent  the  children  from  becoming  Christians, 
they  try  to  prejudice  them  against  all  American  customs 
and  institutions,  and  do  their  best  to  make  the  children 
loyal  to  Japan  instead  of  to  America.  This  is  one  of  the 
reasons  for  the  prejudice  against  the  Japanese.  As  soon 
as  the  Americans  found  out  that  the  Japanese  immigrants 
had  such  an  attitude  toward  American  ideals,  the  feeling 
against  them  arose. 

1  Asia  at  the  Door,  pp.  81,  243-44. 


146  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Entirely  apart  from  the  criticisms  that  may  be  passed 
upon  these  schools  because  of  incompetent  teachers  and 
because  of  their  attempt  to  perpetuate  in  America  their 
native  language  and  traditions,  the  maintenance  of 
these  schools  tends  to  draw  the  Japanese  more  closely 
together  and  reveals  something  of  the  strength  of  their 
national  feeling. 

In  this  connection  there  ought  also  to  be  mentioned 
the  great  influence  of  the  Japanese  vernacular  press  in 
promoting  the  growth  of  a  common  public  opinion 
among  the  Japanese  immigrants.  Says  Dr.  Gulick : 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  immigrants  from  any  other  land 
are  as  alert  as  those  from  Japan  in  the  use  of  the  press 
for  the  promotion  of  their  interests.  Is  there  any  other 
national  group  in  America  which,  in  proportion  to  its 
numbers,  supports  so  many  publications?1 

The  Japanese  people  are  great  newspaper  readers. 
The  periodical  press  in  Japan  circulates  widely  even 
among  the  lower  classes,  the  majority  of  whom  possess 
enough  education  to  read  the  newspapers.  This  same 
desire  to  read  is  characteristic  of  the  Japanese  in  Amer- 
ica. In  spite  of  their  limited  numbers  they  support 
twelve  daily,  six  weekly,  and  thirteen  monthly  news- 
papers and  periodicals,  all  published  in  the  Japanese 
language.  Besides  these  larger  publications,  many  of 
the  small  groups  and  organizations  issue  a  kind  of  bul- 
letin or  news  letter  at  frequent  intervals  in  order  that 
their  members  may  keep  in  touch  with  one  another. 

1  The  American  Japanese  Problem,  p.  ioa 


Organisation  and  Solidarity  147 

Through  these  various  channels  of  communication 
news  is  presented  from  the  Japanese  viewpoint  and  a 
public  opinion  is  formed  which  makes  united  action 
possible. 

That  a  people  so  sensitive  to  their  environment  and 
so  open-minded  in  their  attitude  toward  western  civ- 
ilization should  maintain  such  strong  racial  organi- 
zations must  largely  be  explained  by  the  prejudice 
existing  against  them.  The  hostile  attitude  of  the 
American  people  has  compelled  them  to  organize  in 
defense  of  their  own  interests.  It  is  only  by  standing 
together  that  they  can  establish  themselves  in  an  unwel- 
come environment.  They  have  felt  that  united  action  is 
necessary  in  order  that  employment  may  be  secured, 
and  their  need  of  recreation  and  social  intercourse  has 
driven  them  still  more  closely  together.  They  have 
faced  in  an  intensified  form  the  same  problem  that  has 
confronted  immigrants  of  all  nationalities,  and  their 
response  to  the  situation  has  differed  from  that  of  the 
others  only  in  degree.  The  reaction  of  nearly  all  immi- 
grant groups  to  their  new  environment  has  been 
organization  to  protect  their  interests.  In  so  far  as  the 
Japanese  have  followed  this  natural  tendency,  they 
merit  no  special  attention. 

What  is  striking  about  the  Japanese  is  their  success 
in  maintaining  organizations  that  exert  such  strong 
control  over  all  their  members.  The  explanation  of 
this  fact  must  be  sought  in  the  social  structure  of  the 
Japanese  nation.  In  the  Far  East  individuals  have 
always  been  kept  in  the  background.  Such  an  idea  as 


148  The  Japanese  Invasion 

personal  liberty  has  never  gained  wide  popularity  in 
Japan.  The  individual  has  been  taught  to  subordinate 
his  interests  to  those  of  the  family,  the  community,  and 
the  State.  The  principle  that  private  interests  must 
conform  to  the  general  good  has  permeated  all  the 
philosophy  of  the  Orient.  Consequently,  subjection 
and  obedience  to  authority  are  a  characteristic  of  the 
Japanese  people.  They  have  learned  how  to  incr. 
their  strength  by  standing  together.  That  a  people 
who  have  learned  so  thoroughly  the  lesson  of  s< 
solidarity  should  present  a  united  front  in  their  con- 
tact with  American  environment  is  to  be  expected. 
Schooled  as  they  have  been  in  the  idea  of  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  group,  the  individualistic  American  spirit 
has  affected  them  more  slowly  than  it  has  the  immi- 
grants from  Europe. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE    PROBLEM    OF   INTERMARRIAGE 

T7VER  since  the  beginning  of  the  white  invasion  of 
*-^  the  Far  East  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies, there  has  been  going  on  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  an  intermixture  between  the  white  races  of  the 
West  and  the  colored  races  of  eastern  Asia.  Foreign 
sailors  while  in  eastern  ports  have  formed  alliances 
with  native  women  which  have  sometimes  resulted  in 
illegitimate  offspring  as  inferior  in  character  and  social 
position  as  their  parents  who  gave  them  birth.  As  soon 
as  Westerners  began  to  take  up  settled  residence  in  the 
East  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  in  business  or  in 
administrative  work,  more  permanent  unions  with  na- 
tive women  were  entered  upon,  some  being  registered 
as  legal  marriages,  while  others,  and  these  were  by  far 
the  most  numerous,  were  merely  a  state  of  concubinage 
winked  at  by  the  law  and  regarded  as  a  necessary  evil 
by  the  foreign  communities.  This  aspect  of  the  mix- 
ture of  the  white  and  colored  races  can  best  be  seen  in 
India,  where  the  process  has  been  going  on  for  more 
than  two  hundred  years  and  has  brought  about  the  for- 
mation of  groups  of  Eurasians  and  Anglo-Indians  suf- 
ficiently large  to  constitute  one  of  the  problems  of  that 
country. 

In  Japan,  where  free  association  with  foreigners  has 

149 


ISO  The  Japanese  Invasion 

ted  for  only  a  comparatively  short  period,  the 
Eurasian  problem  has  not  had  time  to  assume  much 
significance  as  far  as  numbers  are  concerned.  There 
has  been,  however,  an  unusual  amount  of  illicit  rela- 
tionship between  foreign  men  and  Japanese  women  of 
the  lower  classes.  The  attractiveness  of  the  Japanese 
women  together  with  their  reputed  willingness  to  hire 
themselves  out  to  foreigners  for  a  small  sum  has  made 
the  ports  of  Japan  popular  with  sailors,  traders,  and 
visitors  with  a  tendency  to  loose  living.  The  few  chil- 
dren that  have  resulted  from  these  liaisons  have  gener- 
ally, as  might  be  expected,  turned  out  badly  and  have 
served  to  strengthen  the  popular  impression  that  Eura- 
sian children  are  necessarily  of  an  inferior  type.  This 
idea  was  given  scientific  expression  by  no  less  an 
authority  than  Herbert  Spencer  who,  in  a  personal  let- 
ter to  Baron  Kaneko,  strongly  condemned  the  practice 
of  mixed  marriages. 

To  your  remaining  question  respecting  the  intermar- 
riage of  foreigners  and  Japanese,  my  reply  is  that,  as 
rationally  answered,  there  is  no  difficulty  at  all.  It  should 
be  positively  forbidden.  It  is  not  at  root  a  question  of 
social  philosophy.  It  is  at  root  a  question  of  biology. 
There  is  abundant  proof,  alike  furnished  by  the  inter- 
marriages of  human  races  and  by  the  interbreeding  of 
animals,  that  when  the  varieties  mingled  diverge  beyond 
a  certain  slight  degree  the  result  is  inevitably  a  bad  one 
in  the  long  run.  I  have  myself  been  in  the  habit  of  look- 
ing at  the  evidence  bearing  on  this  matter  for  many  years 
past,  and  my  conviction  is  based  on  numerous  facts  de- 
rived from  numerous  sources  .  By  all  means,  there- 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  151 

fore,  peremptorily  interdict  marriages  of  Japanese  with 
foreigners.1 

While  Spencer  did  not  quote  the  sources  from  which 
he  drew  his  conclusions,  he  must  have  had  in  mind  the 
progeny  of  promiscuous  unions  found  in  the  ports  of 
the  Far  East  where  the  type  of  parents  and  the  social 
heritage  of  the  children  were  usually  of  the  worst. 
His  attempt  to  support  his  conclusions  by  drawing  an 
analogy  between  the  intermarriage  of  different  races 
of  men  and  the  interbreeding  of  different  species  of 
animals  is  by  no  means  convincing  to  modern  students. 
In  spite  of  all  differences  in  external  appearance  and 
habits  of  life,  it  is  now  quite  generally  held  that  the 
human  race  is  biologically  one.  The  modern  races 
which  are  continually  being  brought  into  closer  con- 
tacts with  each  other  because  of  better  facilities  of 
communication  and  travel  are  themselves  by  no  means 
pure,  but  are  the  result  of  a  vast  intermixture  of  dif- 
ferent peoples  going  back  into  the  remote  past.  In  so 
far  as  the  offspring  of  mixed  marriages  in  Japan  fail 
to  measure  up  to  the  usual  standard,  the  more  probable 
explanation  of  this  fact  must  be  found  in  their  bad 
social  heredity  and  in  the  handicap  such  children  must 
face  because  of  the  strong  prejudice  against  them. 

The  correctness  of  this  view  is  borne  out  by  a  study 
of  the  mixed  marriages  in  Japan  that  have  taken  place 
in  the  higher  social  circles.  Well-educated  and  success- 
ful Westerners  like  Professors  Seymour  and  Eastlake 

1  From  a  letter  to  Baron  Kentaro  Kaneko  written  Aug.  26,  1892, 
and  first  made  public  by  the  London  Times  of  Jan.  22,  1904. 


152  The  Japanese  Invasion 

of  the  Japanese  government  schools;  Captain  Brinkley. 
editor  of  the  Japan  Mail;  Lafcadio  Hearn,  author 
"t  a  number  of  books  on  Japan;  Mr.  De  Becker, 
a  Yokohama  attorney,  and  others  almost  as  well 
known,  married  Japanese  wives  of  good  social  posi- 
tion and  established  themselves  as  permanent  resi- 
dents of  Japan.  Their  children,  with  few  exceptions, 
have  turned  out  well  and  do  not  seem  to  be  in  health, 
ability,  or  moral  character  in  any  wise  inferior  to  Jap- 
anese or  European  children  of  corresponding  social 
rank.  The  great  problem  has  been  to  give  them  a  suit- 
able education.  The  foreign  fathers  have  been  unwill- 
ing in  most  cases,  to  have  the  children  enter  Japanese 
schools  and  grow  up  as  Japanese  citizens.  As  far  as 
possible  they  have  tried  to  give  them  a  foreign  educa- 
tion by  employing  tutors  or  by  sending  them  abroad. 
In  either  case  they  are  unfitted  for  residence  in  Japan 
in  the  status  of  Japanese,  which  would  seem  to  be  the 
natural  course  for  them  to  follow.  Whether  they  have 
remained  in  Japan  or  have  tried  to  gain  their  living 
abroad,  they  have  had  to  face  a  prejudice,  wherever 
their  family  history  was  known,  that  largely  accounts 
for  any  failures  that  may  be  charged  up  against  them. 
It  is,  indeed,  this  prejudice  against  intermarriage 
which  lowers  the  social  status  of  not  only  the  children 
but  the  parents  as  well,  that  is  one  of  the  chief  argu- 
ments against  the  formation  of  such  unions.  The  Jap- 
anese woman  who  marries  a  foreigner  must  brave  the 
criticism  and  displeasure  of  nearly  all  her  relatives  and 
friends  and  suffers  more  or  less  social  ostracism.  She 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  153 

finds  herself  cut  off  from  many  of  her  former  asso- 
ciations with  her.  own  people  and  is  given  no  social 
standing  in  the  foreign  community  of  which  her  hus- 
band is  a  member.  It  is  hard  to  overestimate  the  feel- 
ing against  mixed  marriages  in  the  Far  East.  Both  the 
Japanese  and  the  foreigners  .regard  those  who  have 
entered  upon  such  an  alliance  as  having  lowered  their 
social  position,  and  in  countless  ways  they  make  plainly 
evident  their  disapproval.  This  taboo  is  undoubtedly 
responsible  for  the  small  number  of  mixed  marriages 
found  among  the  higher  classes.  Even  though  the 
foreign  men  are  willing  to  face  this  social  disapproval 
for  the  sake  of  a  home,  few  Japanese  girls  of  good 
family  have  sufficient  courage  and  independence  to 
marry  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  their  parents,  who 
almost  invariably  disapprove  of  foreign  marriages 
for  their  children. 

Practically  no  Japanese  girls  educated  abroad  have 
married  foreigners  during  their  long  residence  in  a  for- 
eign land.  While  the  characteristic  subjection  of  Jap- 
anese women  to  parental  authority  might  be  sufficient 
to  explain  this,  there  is  no  available  evidence  that  these 
girls  have  received  desirable  offers  of  marriage  from 
foreign  friends.  In  the  first  stages  of  race  amalgama- 
tion the  initiative  comes  from  the  men  who  happen  to 
be  isolated  from  women  of  their  own  race.  Under 
normal  conditions  of  association  foreign  wives  are  sel- 
dom chosen  in  preference  to  those  of  native  birth. 

Within  recent  years  the  most  common  type  of  inter- 
marriage with  the  Japanese  is  that  formed  between 


154  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Japanese  men  and  foreign  women.  This  has  come 
about  because  of  the  large  number  of  Japanese  men 
who  have  gone  abroad,  especially  to  America,  for  a 
more  or  less  protracted  stay.  Unlike  the  Japaiu  -c 
women,  they  have  felt  themselves  less  under  the  influ- 
ence of  parental  restraint  and  have  in  a  number  of 
instances  contracted  a  foreign  marriage.  In  case  such 
families  go  to  Japan  to  live,  this  type  of  intermarriage 
is  very  likely  to  result  unhappily  because  the  wife  finds 
herself  suddenly  transplanted  into  a  new  social  envi- 
ronment for  which  she  is  by  no  means  fitted.  Without 
a  knowledge  of  the,  language  and  unfamiliar  with  the 
social  customs  of  the  new  country,  she  must  adapt  her- 
self to  a  family  system  in  which  the  wife  plays  a  much 
more  subordinate  part  than  is  customary  in  the  West. 
Not  only  is  she  received  coldly  by  her  husband's  par- 
ents but  she  is  also  largely  cut  off  from  association  with 
people  of  her  own  nationality,  who  assign  her  a  lower 
social  position  because  of  her  marriage  with  a  Japanese. 
Especially  is  her  lot  unfortunate  if  her  husband's  in- 
come is  not  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  live  in  foreign 
style.  It  is  a  rare  foreign  woman  who  can  successfully 
adapt  herself  to  a  Japanese  house  and  Japanese  food 
and  at  the  same  time  endure  the  isolation  that  is  in- 
evitable because  of  the  existing  prejudice  against  inter- 
marriage. She  also  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  becoming 
the  wife  of  a  Japanese  she  has  placed  herself  on  an 
equality  with  Japanese  women  and  must  expect  to  re- 
ceive the  treatment  accorded  them.  However  consid- 
erate her  husband  may  be,  the  weight  of  social  custom 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  155 

will  naturally  cause  his  attitude  toward  his  wife  to  con- 
form to  the  ideals  of  his  own  people.  The  Japanese 
family  system  demands  as  one  of  its  first  principles 
the  recognition  of  the  inferiority  of  woman  and  the 
subjection  of  her  will  to  man.  While  this  may  be  much 
modified  by  her  husband's  kindness  and  foreign  train- 
ing, yet  her  identification  with  the  Japanese  people 
makes  her  a  part  of  this  system,  to  which  she  must 
either  conform  or  remain  an  outsider  isolated  from  the 
people  with  whom  she  has  cast  her  lot.  Lawton  in  his 
Empires  of  the  Far  East  expresses  the  following  opin- 
ion about  this  type  of  intermarriage: 

While  the  advocates  of  assimilation  claim  that  the 
advancement  of  Japan  as  a  nation  entitles  her  people  to 
be  regarded  as  the  equal  of  any  other  race,  few  if  any 
of  them  are  prepared  for  the  marriage  of  western  women 
with  Japanese  men.  In  making  this  reservation  they 
completely  spoil  their  whole  case.  It  is  in  the  nature  of 
a  recognition  that  the  social  standard  in  Japan  is  inferior 
to  that  which  prevails  in  western  countries.  For  it  is 
indisputable  that  the  marriage  of  a  western  woman  to  a 
Japanese  lowers  her  status  in  society  and  exposes  her  to 
the  indignities  that  are  inseparable  from  the  operation  of 

the  Japanese  social  system To  anyone  who  chooses 

to  inquire,  facts  are  available  proving  beyond  the  merest 
shadow  of  a  doubt  that  mixed  marriages,  in  which  the 
woman  is  of  the  white  race  and  the  man  an  Oriental, 
are  attended  by  unutterable  misery  —  misery  that  is  inva- 
riably confined  to  the  unfortunate  lot  of  the  wife.  It 
may  be  urged  that  this  state  could  only  result  where  the 
Japanese  belonged  to  the  lower  orders.  Instances  that 
have  come  within  the  knowledge  of  the  writer  conclu- 


156  The  Japanese  Invasion 

sively  show  this  not  to  be  the  case.  Japanese  men  of  all 
classes  are  more  or  less  imbued  with  a  common  idea  in 
regard  to  womanhood,  and  it  is  the  better  classes  who  are 
generally  seen  abroad.  Obviously  names  cannot  be  men- 
tioned, but  I  have  in  mind  more  than  one  instance  where 
members  of  the  nobility  and  government  officials,  whose 
status  in  their  own  country  gave  them  an  open  door  to 
European  society,  have  treated  foreign  wives  with  a  de- 
gree of  indignity,  and  often  with  a  callous  disregard  for 
even  the  most  elementary  of  human  principles,  that  should 
place  them  outside  the  pale  of  civilization.1 

The  foreign  wife,  however,  is  not  the  only  one  to 
suffer  through  these  mixed  unions.  The  Japanese  hus- 
band residing  abroad  faces  a  delicate  situation  when  he 
is  recalled  by  his  government  to  his  native  land,  or 
when  business  interests  demand  his  return.  He  is  well 
aware  that  his  foreign  wife  will  not  be  made  welcome 
by  his  own  people,  and  knows  that  her  presence  may 
even  hinder  his  social  and  official  advancement.  These 
considerations  have  sometimes  resulted  in  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  foreign  family  and  in  the  securing  of  a 
divorce  immediately  upon  the  return  to  Japan.  An 
example  of  this  kind  occurred  in  England  a  few  years 
ago.  A  Japanese  count,  while  residing  abroad,  mar- 
ried an  English  lady  of  good  social  position.  Upon 
his  return  to  Japan  he  left  his  wife  behind  with  the 
understanding  that  she  would  follow  him  later.  1 1  is 
family,  not  knowing  of  his  foreign  marriage,  immedi- 
ately took  steps  to  bring  about  his  betrothal  to  an  im- 
perial princess.  The  count,  who  was  very  desirous  of 

1  The  Empires  of  the  Far  East,  2 : 761-63. 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  157 

forming  such  an  alliance,  determined  to  secure  quietly 
a  divorce  from  his  English  wife.  In  order  to  bring 
this  about  he  first  registered  his  marriage  in  a  local 
police  station  so  as  to  make  it  legal,  and  then  shortly 
after  dissolved  the  marriage  by  canceling  the  registra- 
tion, a  procedure  that  is  permitted  in  Japan  in  case  the 
wife  does  not  offer  any  objections.  He  then  removed 
to  another  section  of  the  city  where  he  would  be  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  different  police  district  and  con- 
tinued the  preparations  for  his  wedding.  Unfortu- 
nately for  his  plans,  the  newspapers  got  hold  of  the 
matter  and  gave  it  wide  publicity.  His  engagement 
with  the  princess  was  broken  off  and  he  was  deprived 
of  his  patent  of  nobility.  From  the  Japanese  view- 
point his  greatest  offense  was  not  his  abandonment  of 
his  lawful  wife  but  rather  the  fact  that  his  mixed  mar- 
riage injured  the  prestige  of  the  Japanese  nobility. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  sometimes  happens,  especially 
in  the  diplomatic  circles,  that  the  desire  to  live  in  for- 
eign style  may  cause  a  foreign  wife  to  be  regarded  as 
a  decided  advantage.  Japanese  government  officials 
who  reside  a  great  deal  of  the  time  abroad  find  it  much 
easier  to  carry  on  their  social  duties  when  aided  by  a 
foreign  wife.  Viscount  Aoki  married  a  German  lady, 
and  their  daughter  is  now  the  wife  of  a  German  baron. 
Mr.  Ozaki,  formerly  mayor  of  Tokyo,  and  Minister  of 
Justice  in  Marquis  Okuma's  cabinet,  married  a  very 
accomplished  Eurasian.  Marriages  of  this  kind,  where 
the  husband  has  sufficient  income  to  live  in  foreign 
style  and  where  his  official  position  gives  him  prestige 


158  The  Japanese  Invasion 

in  social  circles,  do  not  seem  open  to  such  serious  objec- 
tions provided  the  welfare  of  the  children  can  be  se- 
cured. An  American,  who  for  a  number  of  years  has 
been  in  close  touch  with  Japanese  higher  social  circles, 
writes  in  a  private  letter  as  follows  concerning  this 
aspect  of  intermarriage: 

I  feel  that  the  Japanese  are  sufficiently  prejudiced 
against  foreigners,  as  such,  to  believe  that  while  socially 
a  foreign  wife  is  no  advantage  to  one  of  their  subjects, 
such  a  possession  might  be  sometimes  an  advantage  in  get- 
ting on  with  foreigners  abroad  and  therefore  is  under 
such  circumstances  pardonable  from  the  utilitarian  point 
of  view.  In  discussing  the  subject  with  Baron  Kanda 
once,  he  admitted  to  me  that  the  main  objection  of  the 
Japanese  to  marriage  with  foreigners  is  the  disadvantage 
it  brings  upon  the  offspring,  as  Eurasians  are  despised 
alike  by  Japanese  and  Occidentals.  But  so  long  as  Japa- 
nese of  high  class  show  no  disposition  to  want  wives  of 
equal  class  abroad,  prejudice  of  a  powerful  kind  must 
exist,  but  whether  it  is  more  on  the  foreign  than  the 
Japanese  side  may  be  a  question,  though  I  fancy  it  is 
stronger  on  the  Japanese  side.  The  recent  coronation 
ceremonies,  wherein  the  Imperial  family  spent  nearly  a 
month  going  about  worshiping  their  ancestors,  shows  that 
the  Japanese  believe  it  possible  to  have  a  god  of  their 
own,  or,  if  not  that,  that  God  Almighty  is  a  Japanese, 
whom  others  ignorantly  worship  under  another  name.  All 
this,  to  me,  proves  the  existence  of  a  racial  and  national 
self-conceit  that  could  not  believe  a  foreign  woman  fit  to 
be  the  wife  of  a  Japanese,  except  in  an  inferior  way.  As 
Viscount  Aoki  was  believed  to  have  also  had  a  Japanese 
wife,  he  was,  it  is  said,  excused  for  taking  a  foreign 
mistress  while  abroad;  and  many  Japanese  never  look 
upon  the  foreign  wife  as  any  more  than  a  mistress  of  con- 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  159 

venience.  I  have  heard  Dr.  Nitobe  criticized  by  Japanese 
as  "  more  than  half  foreigner,"  but  whether  it  was  because 
of  his  foreign  marriage  was  not  stated,  though  I  suspect 
that  was  the  reason.  On  the  whole,  then,  you  will  see  that 
my  conviction,  backed  up  by  numerous  inferences,  is  that 
the  Japanese  regard  it  as  derogatory  to  marry  foreigners ; 
and,  other  things  being  equal,  it  would  work  out  disad- 
vantageously  to  a  Japanese  in  official  circles ;  while,  as  we 
know,  no  high-class  Japanese  woman  has  ever  married  a 
foreigner. 

The  sad  side  of  this  problem  appears  where  a  Jap- 
anese of  the  middle  class  marries  a  foreign  wife  and 
then  takes  her  back  with  him  to  Japan.  This  has  been 
done  in  a  number  of  cases  by  Japanese  men  in  profes- 
sional life  whose  income  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  them 
to  maintain  a  foreign  standard  of  living.  A  Japanese 
dentist,  a  graduate  of  an  American  dental  college,  mar- 
ried an  American  wife  and  returned  with  her  to  Japan 
to  practice  his  profession.  He  was  a  well-trained  and 
capable  man  and  had  no  difficulty  in  securing  work,  but 
when  his  prices  were  lowered  to  the  Japanese  scale  he 
was  unable  to  maintain  a  foreign  establishment  for  his 
family.  His  wife,  who  could  not  adjust  herself  to  the 
Japanese  mode  of  living,  found  herself  an  unwelcome 
member  of  the  foreign  community  and  has  been  liv- 
ing, to  all  outward  appearance,  a  very  unhappy  life. 
She  stated  to  some  of  her  friends  that  she  went  to 
Japan  believing  that  it  was  a  land  of  sunshine  and 
flowers  where  life  would  be  ideal,  but  that  her  disillu- 
sionment had  been  complete. 

Mr.  Y.  resided  for  a  number  of  years  in  America  as 


160  The  Japanese  Invasion 

an  art  student.  In  1910  he  married  in  New  York  City 
a  German-American  girl  who  accompanied  him  back 
to  Japan.  He  set  up  a  studio  in  Tokyo  where  he  made 
an  unsuccessful  effort  to  earn  a  living  as  a  portrait 
painter.  He  then  went  to  Omori,  an  inland  town  north 
of  Tokyo,  and  established  himself  as  a  photographer, 
using  the  last  of  his  wife's  money  to  buy  the  necessary 
equipment.  This  business  brought  in  too  small  an 
income  for  him  to  provide  foreign  food  for  his  wife, 
who  was  unable  to  accustom  herself  to  Japanese  diet. 
Finally  he  became  so  involved  in  debt  that  he  had  to 
give  up  his  business  and  was  left  penniless  with  a  for- 
eign wife  and  two  small  children  dependent  upon  him. 
Their  plight  was  discovered  by  an  American  mission- 
ary who  took  the  family  to  Yokohama  and  made  an 
effort  to  find  employment  for  him.  Since  no  work 
could  be  found  which  would  enable  him  to  support  his 
family  in  reasonable  comfort,  it  was  decided  to  send 
them  back  to  America.  A  purse  of  several  hundred 
dollars  was  raised  among  the  foreign  community,  their 
debts  were  settled,  and  their  fare  paid  back  to  New 
York.  The  wife  found,  to  her  chagrin,  that  by  her 
marriage  to  a  Japanese  she  had  forfeited  her  American 
citizenship  and  consequently  had  to  suffer  all  the 
trouble  and  indignities  an  Oriental  must  face  in  secur- 
ing entrance  to  America. 

Dr.  K.,  a  graduate  of  the  medical  department  of 
the  University  of  Michigan,  married  a  well-educated 
American  girl  of  good  family.  The  bride  at  the  time 
of  her  marriage  had  several  thousand  dollars,  all  of 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  161 

which  was  used  to  pay  the  expenses  of  a  prolonged 
stay  on  the  Pacific  coast.  After  their  arrival  in  Japan, 
Dr.  K.  established  a  hospital  in  Tokyo  and  became  a 
successful  physician.  His  attitude,  however,  toward 
his  wife  changed  and  he  treated  her  with  such  harsh- 
ness that  her  life  became  unhappy.  Her  distress  was 
further  increased  by  the  fact  that  her  husband  brought 
Japanese  girls  into  the  home  who  lived  there  openly  as 
concubines.  Constant  brooding  over  her  unhappiness 
undermined  her  health,  and  although  she  was  but  a 
young  woman,  her  hair  turned  snowy  white.  Since 
her  position  in  her  home  was  becoming  more  and  more 
unendurable,  some  American  friends  furnished  her 
with  transportation  and  sent  her  back  to  America  to 
her  parents. 

An  English  lady  came  out  to  Japan  to  visit  her 
brother,  who  was  a  medical  missionary  in  Tokyo.  Soon 
after  her  arrival  in  Japan  she  fell  in  love  with  a  Jap- 
anese whom  she  married  in  spite  of  the  protests  of 
friends  arid  relatives.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  it 
was  discovered  that  her  husband  had  a  Japanese  wife 
and  family  in  another  part  of  the  city  whom  he  visited 
at  frequent  intervals.  The  strain  of  supporting  two 
families  was  too  much  for  his  slender  resources,  and 
his  foreign  wife  and  children  would  have  fared  badly 
if  her  brother  had  not  given  them  needed  financial 
assistance. 

Similar  instances  as  tragic  as  the  above  might  be 
cited  if  further  proof  were  required  of  the  unhappiness 
likely  to  result  from  such  marriages.  Dr.  Gulick,  after 


162  The  Japanese  Invasion 

strongly  denouncing  the  theory  that  Eurasian  children 
are  of  an  inferior  type,  registers  his  conviction  that 
intermarriage  of  Americans  and  Japanese  is  at  present 
inadvisable. 

It  may  be  set  down  as  a  universal  rule  that  intermar- 
riage of  races  should  follow,  not  precede,  social  assimila- 
tion. Suppose  that  a  Japanese  man  of  ordinary  social 
rank  and  corresponding  means  marries  an  American  wife 
in  America  and  takes  her  back  with  him  to  Japan.  He 
has  his  ideal  of  a  home  —  a  Japanese  home  —  and  she 
has  hers  of  an  American  home.  Her  position  in  her 
Japanese  home,  however,  is  largely  determined  by  the 
ideals  and  demands  of  his  mother  (her  mother-in-law) 
and  by  all  his  kindred.  Now,  for  an  American  girl  to 
take  up  life  in  a  Japanese  home,  first  coming  to  know  it 
in  adult  years ;  for  her  to  begin  then  to  learn  the  language 
and  customs  of  Japan,  to  cook  and  to  eat  their  food,  and 
to  live  entirely  as  they  do,  would  be  such  an  awful  experi- 
ence that,  no  matter  how  much  her  husband  might  love 
and  seek  to  help  her,  it  would  be  a  fearful  ordeal  and 
could  hardly  end  in  permanent  happiness.  Her  health 
would  probably  give  way  under  the  strain.  Moreover,  it 
would  be  impossible  for  her  to  impart  to  her  children  a 
Japanese  social  heredity.  Although  she  might  seek  to 
suppress  her  social  influence,  that  would  be  only  partly 
possible.  The  children  she  rears  could  not  but  be  partly 
foreign  in  manner  and  thought  as  well  as  in  looks. 

The  case,  however,  would  be  quite  different  if  the  man 
is  a  wealthy  Japanese,  with  high  social  rank,  who,  even  in 
Japan,  can  afford  to  live  and  prefers  to  live  in  foreign 
style  and  desires  his  children  to  be  foreign.  The  proba- 
bility of  a  happy  marriage  would,  in  this  case,  be  largely 
increased.  But  unless  the  Japanese  husband  adopts  to  a 
large  degree  the  wife's  ideal  of  the  social  freedom  of 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  163 

women,  the  American  wife  would  find  her  secluded  life 
almost  intolerable.  Such  cases  are  not  unknown  in  Japan. 
The  American  wife  who  goes  to  Japan  to  live  should,  of 
course,  be  prepared  to  accept  the  Japanese  ideal  as  to 
the  home  and  the  duties,  obedience,  and  responsibilities  of 
the  Japanese  wife.  Even  though  the  husband  may  seek 
to  relieve  and  help  her,  there  are  the  relatives,  and  peace 
demands  acceptance  also  of  their  ideals,  or  collision  will 
result  and  unhappiness  follow.1 

The  fundamental  objections  to  such  intermarriage 
must  be  based  upon  social  considerations  —  differences 
in  standards  of  living,  social  customs,  family  system, 
ideals  of  home,  and  even  moral  standards  —  rather 
than  upon  the  contention  that  the  offspring  are  inferior 
in  type  and  show  a  tendency  to  degeneracy.  No  valid 
conclusion  can  be  drawn  on  the  biological  side  from  the 
unfortunate  condition  of  some  of  the  illegitimate  Eura- 
sian children  found  in  the  ports  of  Japan.  The  very 
circumstances  in  which  they  were  brought  up,  the  atti- 
tude of  the  better  classes  of  the  community  toward 
them,  would  make  their  degradation  almost  a  matter 
of  course.  Even  the  majority  of  the  Eurasian  chil- 
dren of  the  better  classes  cannot  be  said  to  enjoy  in 
Japan  a  favorable  opportunity  for  proper  development. 
Prejudice  closes  many  doors  in  their  faces  and  makes 
it  hard  for  them  to  succeed  unless  gifted  in  a  more  than 
ordinary  way.  Detailed  studies  of  the  careers  of  Eura- 
sians in  Japan  have  unfortunately  not  yet  been  under- 
taken, but  two  valuable  expressions  of  opinion  on  this 

1  The  American  Japanese  Problem,  pp.  157-58. 


164  The  Japanese  Invasion 

subject  have  been  made  by  Dr.  Baelz  and  Captain 
Brinkley,  two  well-known  authorities  on  things  Jap- 
anese. Dr.  Baelz  says: 

As  a  physician  in  Tokyo  during  thirty  years  I  have 
had  the  opportunity  of  examining  an  unusually  large 
number  of  Ainoko  (half-breeds)  and  I  have  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  them.  The  result  of  my  observations 

is  that  they  are  a  healthy  set  of  people They  are, 

on  an  average,  well  built,  and  show  no  tendency  to  organic 
disease  more  than  Europeans  or  Japanese  do.  This  is 
the  more  remarkable  as  many  of  them  grow  up  under 
unfavorable  circumstances,  the  father  often  having  left 
them  with  little  money  to  the  care  of  a  mother  who  has 
no  authority  over  them.  This  is  a  particularly  important 
point  if  the  moral  qualities  are  considered.  In  Europe, 
too,  we  know  that  abandoned,  illegitimate  children  very 
often  turn  out  badly,  and  a  fair  comparison  must  take  that 
into  serious  consideration.  To  make  quite  sure  about  the 
intellectual  and  moral  qualities  of  the  Ainoko,  I  have 
asked  the  opinion  of  the  man  who  is  more  than  any  other 
qualified  to  give  an  authoritative  judgment  —  Mr.  Hem- 
rich,  Director  of  the  School  of  the  Morning  Star.  He 
has  had  in  his  classes,  side  by  side,  Europeans,  Japanese, 
and  almost  all  the  male  half-breeds  in  Tokyo.  His  opinion 
is,  that  if  properly  brought  up  and  well  looked  after,  the 
half-breeds  are  morally  and  intellectually  in  no  way  infe- 
rior to  the  children  of  both  races.  As  a  rule,  they  are 
taller  and  more  robust  than  the  Japanese,  and  in  every 
branch  of  learning  they  are  fully  up  to  the  standard  of 
their  fellow  scholars.1 

Captain  Brinkley  corroborated  this  testimony  in  the 
following  words: 

1  Quoted  in  The  Empires  of  the  Far  East,  2 :  772-74- 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  165 

We  desire  to  submit  ....  the  following  figures,  em- 
bodying the  results  of  our  own  observation,  spread  over 
some  thirty  years.  The  total  number  of  Eurasian  chil- 
dren that  have  been  known  to  us  directly  or  indirectly 
throughout  that  period  is  179.  Out  of  these  seven  have 
died,  and  the  causes  of  death  were:  childbirth,  two;  ty- 
phoid fever,  one ;  peritonitis,  one ;  whooping  cough,  one ; 
and  disease  of  the  lungs,  two.  Among  the  remaining  172, 
one  is  hysterical  and  two  are  below  the  normal  standard 
of  intelligence,  but  all  three  cases  are  directly  attributable 
to  an  aged,  intemperate,  or  diseased  parent.  Two  of  the 
men  are  mauvais  sujets,  and  one,  though  now  a  respect- 
able member  of  society,  sowed  a  good  deal  of  wild  oats 
in  his  youth.  It  results,  then,  that  169  have  grown  to 
maturity,  and  we  may  add  that  166  of  them  are  endowed 
with  more  than  the  average  of  normal  and  physical  prop- 
erties, though  many  have  not  by  any  means  enjoyed  aver- 
age opportunities.1 

While  this  testimony  seems  conclusive  as  far  as  the 
normality  of  the  Eurasian  children  is  concerned,  a 
more  detailed  account  of  their  experiences  would  reveal 
a  dark  picture  of  difficulties  such  children  must  con- 
tend with  while  living  in  Japan.  Without  doubt  there 
exists  in  Japan,  among  both  the  Japanese  and  the 
foreigners  residing  there,  a  much  stronger  prejudice 
against  intermarriage  than  is  usually  found  in  Amer- 
ica. The  foreign  communities  in  cities  like  Tokyo  and 
Yokohama  show  their  intolerant  attitude  in  such  a 
marked  way  that  social  isolation  is  the  usual  lot  of 
Eurasian  families.  The  Japanese  show,  if  possible, 

1  Quoted  in  The  Empires  of  the  Far  East,  2 : 772-744- 


166  The  Japanese  Invasion 

even  greater  intolerance,  as  would  be  natural  among  a 
people  who  are  not  accustomed  to  mixed  marriages 
even  with  nations  as  closely  allied  with  their  own  as 
the  Chinese  and  Koreans. 

In  America,  while  the  feeling,  at  least  outside  of 
California,  is  less  bitter,  the  general  consensus  of 
opinion  that  the  Asiatic  is  not  our  equal  socially  causes 
such  marriages  to  be  regarded  as  highly  unfortunate. 
The  social  discrimination  which  all  Japanese,  includ- 
ing even  students  in  university  circles,  must  face, 
makes  practically  impossible  any  general  tendency  to 
marry  into  American  families.  In  a  university  town 
of  the  Middle  West  a  popular  American  girl  found 
herself  almost  entirely  "cut"  by  her  social  set  because 
she  persisted  in  publicly  associating  with  a  Japanese 
fellow  student.  Both  of  the  young  people  were  thor- 
oughly in  love  with  each  other,  but  the  idea  of  marriage 
was  finally  abandoned  because  of  the  earnest  protest 
of  friends.  It  is  very  evident  that  it  is  the  social  taboo 
rather  than  any  innate  feeling  of  repulsion  that  pre- 
vents amalgamation  from  taking  place. 

Some  Japanese,  however,  claim  that  American 
women  are  not  attractive  to  them  and  that  they  would 
never  be  chosen  in  preference  to  women  of  their  own 
race.  The  fact  that  American  women  are  as  a  rule 
larger  than  Japanese  men,  together  with  the  striking 
contrast  between  the  characteristic  independence  of 
American  wives  and  the  submissiveness  of  Japanese 
wives,  would  seem  to  be  a  sufficient  explanation  of 
this  feeling  in  so  far  as  it  really  exists.  But  even  after 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  167 

due  consideration  is  given  to  the  influence  of  differ- 
ences in  ideals  of  beauty,  intellectual  traits,  and  family 
customs,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  real  bar  to  inter- 
marriage is  the  strong  feeling  of  disapproval  that  is  so 
widely  prevalent.  Japanese  residing  in  America  seldom 
have  the  opportunity  of  meeting  and  associating  with 
the  best  type  of  American  girls.  The  association  that 
leads  to  marriage  is  most  frequently  made  possible  by 
business  relationships  of  various  kinds.  The  Japanese 
may  be  a  lodger  or  servant  in  the  home  where  girls 
of  a  marriageable  age  live;  he  may  become  acquainted 
with  them  as  stenographers  or  clerks  in  his  office  or 
store ;  or  he  may  be  thrown  in  contact  with  chamber- 
maids and  waitresses  while  employed  in  hotels  and 
restaurants.  Even  in  these  cases  the  courtship  cannot 
be  carried  on  publicly  without  provoking  serious  criti- 
cism, and  as  a  natural  consequence  intermarriages  are 
infrequent. 

According  to  the  best  figures  obtainable,  there  are 
about  three  hundred  Japanese-American  families  now 
living  in  America,  fifty  on  the  western  coast  and  two 
hundred  and  fifty  scattered  throughout  the  eastern 
states.  Some  prominent  Japanese  are  numbered  among 
them,  men  like  Mr.  Kawakami,  Dr.  Takamine,  Consul 
Kurusu,  and  others  who  have  married  into  good  Amer- 
ican families,  and  who  possess  the  financial  ability  and 
prestige  to  maintain  comfortable  American  homes. 
By  far  the  majority  of  such  marriages  have  been  made 
by  Japanese  of  the  middle  or  lower  classes,  and  the 
women  who  have  consented  to  share  their  lot  have 


168  The  Japanese  Invasion 

largely  been  drawn  from  the  ranks  of  European 
immigrants. 

In  California  a  strict  law  exists  against  such  mar- 
riages, and  in  all  parts  of  the  country  they  are  regarded 
as  a  serious  violation  of  the  social  code. 

The  following  examples  of  mixed  marriages  that 
have  taken  place  in  America  may  be  regarded  as  fairly 
typical,  and  give  a  more  vivid  picture  of  actual  condi- 
tions than  would  any  amount  of  theorizing. 

A  Japanese  student,  a  member  of  a  prominent 
family,  while  attending  Dennison  University  in  Ohio, 
joined  a  fraternity  and  was  encouraged  by  his  friends 
to  participate  in  social  functions.  A  young  lady  who 
lived  in  the  house  where  he  had  secured  a  room  asso- 
ciated with  him  freely,  and  in  course  of  time  they 
became  engaged.  The  Japanese  then  wrote  to  his 
parents  for  permission  to  arrange  for  his  marriage,  a 
request  that  so  angered  his  father  that  his  financial 
allowance  was  entirely  stopped.  When  the  young 
lady's  parents  heard  of  this,  they  broke  off  the  engage- 
ment. The  young  man,  who  found  himself  suddenly 
thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  left  college,  went  to 
Columbus,  Ohio,  and  secured  employment  in  an  amuse- 
ment park.  While  there  he  became  acquainted  with 
an  American  girl  of  doubtful  reputation,  whom  he 
married,  the  ceremony,  in  the  hope  of  avoiding  pub- 
licity, being  performed  by  an  obscure  colored  minister. 
The  minister,  however,  told  of  the  affair,  and  the 
newspapers  published  scathing  criticisms  of  the  mar- 
riage. In  a  few  days  the  Japanese  left  his  bride,  partly 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  169 

because  of  the  unpleasant  notoriety,  and  disappeared 
from  the  city.  He  finally  drifted  back  to  Japan,  where 
he  became  involved  in  a  love  affair  with  a  geisha  girl 
and  ended  his  life  by  committing  suicide. 

A  Japanese  traveling  for  a  Japanese  business  house 
became  acquainted  in  St.  Louis  with  an  American  girl 
whom  he  later  married.  She  was  an  orphan,  with  few 
friends,  and  entered  upon  the  marriage  with  no  thought 
of  what  it  involved.  Since  her  husband  did  not  earn 
much  money,  she  supplemented  the  income  by  working 
as  a  nurse.  Because  of  their  unsettled  life,  they  have 
not  set  up  housekeeping.  In  some  places  they  have 
found  considerable  difficulty  in  renting  rooms.  In 
spite  of  the  prejudice  which  they  have  had  to  face, 
they  seem  to  be  happy.  They  have  no  children. 

A  Japanese  established  a  small  restaurant  in  a  city 
in  Indiana  and  hired  as  a  waitress  a  Polish  girl  who 
was  unable  to  speak  much  English.  In  the  course  of 
time  the  two  fell  in  love  with  each  other  and  were 
married,  an  arrangement  which  proved  satisfactory  at 
least  from  a  business  standpoint. 

A  Japanese  photographer  with  fair  income  married 
an  American  girl  and  moved  to  Chicago.  They  found 
prejudice  so  strong  against  them  that  they  were  for  a 
time  unable  to  rent  a  satisfactory  apartment. 

A  Japanese  engaged  in  the  tea  business  in  Chicago 
married  an  American  girl  who  has  been  able  to  adapt 
herself  successfully  to  Japanese  ways.  Because  of 
the  difficulty  in  securing  an  apartment,  they  bought  a 
small  home  on  the  installment  plan  and  have  made  it 


170  The  Japanese  Invasion 

a  very  attractive  place.  They  have  two  small  children 
who  resemble  their  father  in  physical  appearance.  The 
children  living  in  the  neighborhood  do  not  play  with 
them  readily.  Although  they  do  not  have  many 
friends,  the  family  seems  to  be  perfectly  happy. 

A  Japanese  employed  as  a  butler  in  the  home  of  an 
Episcopal  clergyman  in  California  succeeded  in  win- 
wing  the  love  of  the  daughter  of  the  house,  a  very 
accomplished  and  popular  girl.  As  the  laws  of  Cali- 
fornia would  not  permit  their  marriage,  they  went  to 
Seattle,  where  the  ceremony  was  performed.  A  few 
months  later  a  child  was  born.  The  marriage  has 
proved  to  be  very  unhappy. 

A  Japanese  while  employed  as  butler  by  a  wealthy 
family  near  Palo  Alto,  California,  became  acquainted 
with  their  seamstress,  a  woman  of  English  birth, 
thirty-seven  years  of  age,  who  was  generally  described 
as  unusually  ugly  and  "queer."  Considerable  gossip 
was  caused  by  his  attentions  to  her.  Several  months 
later  they  were  married  and  lived  in  the  lodge  of  the 
family  where  they  had  previously  worked,  the  Japanese 
still  retaining  his  position  as  butler.  They  have  a 
daughter  now  about  ten  years  old. 

A  Japanese  doctor,  a  masseur,  married  an  American 
girl  and  is  now  living  in  a  city  of  the  Middle  West. 
He  is  very  successful  in  his  profession  and  is  well  liked 
by  the  people  who  know  him.  Because  of  his  popu- 
larity and  his  ability  to  support  his  family  comfort- 
ably, the  marriage  has  aroused  very  little  unfavorable 
comment. 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  171 

A  Japanese  boy  worked  in  a  Chinese  restaurant  in 
Minneapolis,  where  he  received  good  wages  and  was 
able  to  save  some  money.  In  order  to  have  social 
diversion,  he  learned  to  dance,  and  at  a  public  ball 
became  acquainted  with  an  American  girl  with  whom 
he  fell  in  love.  He  wrote  to  Japan  for  permission  to 
marry  her,  but  was  told  that  if  he  did  so  he  would 
be  disowned.  Although  his  parents  have  offered  to 
send  him  a  Japanese  bride,  he  has  thus  far  refused 
to  give  up  his  American  girl,  and  still  hopes  to  marry 
her. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  from  these  examples  that  when 
these  marriages  take  place  on  the  lower  levels  of  society 
the  parties  concerned  face  a  serious  handicap  which 
it  is  hard  for  them  to  overcome.  Prejudice  usually 
thrives  best  among  the  more  ignorant  and  lower 
classes,  and  those  who  are  the  victims  of  this  preju- 
dice are  seldom  able  to  rise  above  it.  So  keenly  do 
some  of  these  Japanese- American  couples  feel  the 
power  of  social  disapproval  that  they  rarely  appear 
together  in  public.  If  they  enter  the  same  street  car, 
they  will  occupy  different  seats.  In  communities  where 
Japanese  children  are  popular,  the  Japanese-American 
children  are  likely  not  to  enjoy  this  same  popularity, 
but  are  sharply  discriminated  against  by  the  American 
children  living  in  their  neighborhood. 

In  order  that  intermarriage  prove  successful  it  is 
not  only  necessary  that  there  be  congeniality  and  a 
sufficient  income  to  make  possible  the  maintenance  of 
a  good  standard  of  living,  but  it  is  also  of  the  highest 


172  The  Japanese  Invasion 

importance  that  those  who  enter  into  such  marriages 
should  possess  a  personality  and  strength  of  character 
that  can  win  friends  in  spite  of  prejudice  and  rise 
above  the  petty  insults  and  social  discrimination  they 
must  face.  The  problem  of  mutual  adjustment  is 
naturally  a  more  difficult  matter  when  the  contracting 
parties  are  members  of  a  different  race.  The  real 
difficulty  is,  however,  that  the  problem  is  only  half 
settled  when  an  adjustment  is  satisfactorily  made. 
Public  opinion  will  not  allow  it  to  remain  a  merely 
personal  matter.  The  social  code  has  been  violated, 
and  the  penalty  of  outraged  social  feelings  must  be 
paid.  What  this  means  in  bitterness  of  heart  and  in 
lifelong  unhappiness  varies  according  to  the  character 
of  the  persons  involved  and  the  locality  in  which  they 
live,  but  it  is  something  from  which  they  can  never 
entirely  escape. 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  all  the  arguments  that 
might  be  brought  against  intermarriage,  we  must  be 
prepared  to  take  a  broader  view  of  the  problem  than 
is  ordinarily  done.  Race  prejudice,  or  national  preju- 
dice, or  even  color  prejudice,  will  not  ultimately  be 
allowed  to  say  the  final  word.  In  these  modern  times 
the  whole  world  is  being  brought  more  closely  together. 
\Yhat  this  will  mean  in  the  breaking  down  of  national 
lines  and  in  the  furthering  of  the  process  of  amalga- 
mation, only  the  future  can  reveal.  The  following 
statement  by  Dr.  Conklin,  professor  of  biology  in 
Princeton  University,  expresses  clearly  a  scientific 
view  of  the  problem  which  is  of  deep  significance  in 


Problem  of  Intermarriage  173 

connection  with  the  increasing  contact  of  the  peoples 
of  the  East  and  West : 

In  the  human  species  the  only  absolute  barrier  to  the 
intermingling  of  races  is  geographical  isolation.  Every 
human  race  is  fertile  with  every  other  one,  and  though 
races  and  nations  and  social  groups  may  raise  artificial 
barriers  against  interbreeding,  we  know  that  these  arti- 
ficial restraints  are  frequently  disregarded  and  that  in  the 
long  run  amalgamation  does  take  place 

Whether  we  want  it  or  not,  hybridization  of  human 
races  is  going  on  and  will  increase.  Partition  walls 
between  classes  and  races  are  being  broken  down ;  com- 
plete isolation  is  no  longer  possible,  and  a  gradual  inter- 
mixture of  human  races  is  inevitable.  We  are  in  the 
grip  of  a  great  world  movement  anc(  we  cannot  reverse 
the  current,  but  we  may  to  a  certain  extent  direct  that 
current  into  the  more  desirable  channels. 

There  is  a  popular  belief  that  hybrid  races  are  always 
inferior  to  pure-bred  ones,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the 
case.  Some  hybrids  are  undoubtedly  inferior  to  either 
of  the  parents,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  some  are  vastly 
superior ;  only  experience  can  determine  whether  a  cer- 
tain cross  will  yield  inferior  or  superior  types.  Society 
can  well  attempt  to  prevent  those  crosses  which  pro- 
duce inferior  stock,  while  encouraging  those  which 
produce  superior  types. 

It  is  this  fact  which  makes  the  problem  of  immigration 
so  serious.  In  general,  immigration  is  regarded  merely  as 
an  economic  and  political  problem,  but  these  aspects  of  it 
are  temporary  and  insignificant  as  compared  with  its  bio- 
logical consequences.  In  welcoming  the  immigrant  to  our 
shores  we  not  only  share  with  him  our  country  but  we 
take  him  into  our  family  and  give  to  him  our  children 
or  our  children's  children  in  marriage.  Whatever  the 


174  The  Japanese  Invasion 

present  antipathies  may  be  to  our  racial  mixture  we  may 
rest  assured  that  in  a  few  hundred  years  these  persons  of 
foreign  race  and  blood  will  be  incorporated  in  our  race 
and  we  in  theirs.  From  the  amalgamation  of  good  r 
good  results  may  be  expected;  but  fusion  with  inferior 
races,  while  it  may  help  to  raise  the  lower  race,  is  very 
apt  to  pull  the  higher  race  down.  How  insignificant  are 
considerations  of  cheap  labor  and  rapid  development  of 
natural  resources  when  compared  with  these  biological 
consequences.1 

1  Conklin,  E.  G.,  Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Development 
of  Men,  pp.  417-19. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  JAPANESE  IN   AMERICA  AS  A   RACE   PROBLEM 


Japanese  invasion  of  America,  while  insig- 
nificant  as  far  as  numbers  are  concerned,  has 
brought  this  country  face  to  face  with  a  serious  prob- 
lem which  does  not  admit  of  an  easy  solution.  It  has 
meant  the  coming  of  a  people  too  different  from  our- 
selves to  gain  ready  acceptance  on  terms  of  social 
equality,  and  yet  too  proud  to  occupy  a  position  that 
would  imply  their  inferiority.  Similar  invasions  on  a 
much  larger  scale  by  European  immigrants  have  con- 
fronted us  with  various  problems.  But  however  low 
their  social  and  economic  status  may  be,  the  Europeans 
at  least  belong  to  nations  that  have  much  in  common 
with  us  and  against  whom  there  exists  no  such  deep- 
seated  prejudice  as  is  generally  felt  for  the  Asiatics. 
It  is  this  that  differentiates  our  oriental  problem  from 
the  general  immigration  problem  and  makes  it  difficult 
to  apply  the  same  policy  to  both. 

A  calm  recognition  of  facts  makes  clear  the  inevi- 
tability of  Americans'  preference  for  European  immi- 
grants. America  and  Europe  are  bound  closely  together 
by  common  ties  of  blood,  customs,  and  traditions. 
America  is  what  it  is  today  largely  because  of  what 
it  has  received  from  Europe.  For  more  than  a  cen- 
tury an  increasing  stream  of  European  immigrants 

175 


176  The  Japanese  Invasion 

has  been  pouring  into  our  cities  and  permeating  the 
social  life  of  the  whole  nation.  Our  open-door  policy 
has  become  a  sentiment  among  us  to  a  larger  extent 
than  is  often  realized.  We  still  like  to  look  upon 
America  as  a  haven  for  the  oppressed  in  Europe,  an 
attitude  that  is  the  more  easily  perpetuated  because 
many  of  our  population  are  either  immigrants  or 
recent  descendants  of  immigrants  with  ties  of  blood 
and  friendship  binding  them  to  the  people  of  the 
Old  World. 

Our  attitude  toward  the  Japanese  immigrant  is 
entirely  the  reverse.  As  far  as  past  history  and  tradi- 
tions are  concerned  the  Japanese  have  little  in  common 
with  us,  and  the  type  of  civilization  they  have  built 
up  differs  greatly  from  ours.  There  is  no  sentimental 
bond  binding  us  to  them  as  is  the  case  with  the  people 
of  Europe.  Already  overcrowded  as  we  feel  ourselves 
to  be  with  European  immigrants,  we  are  in  no  mood 
to  silence  the  voice  of  economic  warning  and  grant 
the  same  privileges  to  Asiatics  that  we  do  to  Euro- 
peans. Here,  it  is  felt,  is  a  good  place  to  draw  the  line 
that  cannot  yet  be  drawn  against  the  European  immi- 
grants because  of  the  prestige  of  past  precedent  and 
ties  of  common  race.  Human  nature  being  as  it  is, 
the  first  discrimination  would  naturally  be  against 
those  with  whom  we  have  least  in  common.  Whether 
in  the  dealings  of  nations  or  in  those  of  individuals,  fa- 
vors are  almost  inevitably  shown  to  those  to  whom  we 
*  are  most  closely  attached.  In  one  aspect  our  treatment 
of  the  Japanese  is  merely  the  reception  of  a  stranger 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  177 

in  a  home  whose  doorway  is  already  overcrowded 
with  friends  demanding  the  continuance  of  past  hos- 
pitality. 

Europe,  it  also  should  be  remembered,  is  a  smaller 
country  than  Asia  and  has  a  much  smaller  population. 
We  have  no  great  fear  of  being  overrun  by  the  people 
of  Europe.  The  teeming  Asiatic  millions,  however, 
eager  and  likely,  if  not  prevented,  to  come  to  America 
in  hordes,  is  a  picture  that  has  impressed  itself  so 
deeply  upon  our  minds  that  a  vague  feeling  of  fear  is 
always  associated  with  the  thought  of  Asiatic  immi- 
gration. Whether  these  feelings  are  justified  or  not, 
they  do  exist,  and  are  partly  responsible  for  our 
unwillingness  to  allow  these  strangers  from  the  East 
to  get  a  foothold  in  our  midst. 

But  this  discussion  only  hints  at  a  more  fundamental 
issue  which  is  involved  in  our  Japanese  problem.  The 
real  cause  of  the  discrimination  against  the  Japanese 
is  that  they  belong  to  a  race  which  in  color  and  physical 
characteristics  is  so  sharply  distinguished  from  the 
people  of  the  West  that  they  cannot  merge  themselves 
unnoticed  into  American  life.  Wherever  they  appear, 
the  most  evident  fact  about  them  is  that  they  are 
Japanese.  In  their  dress  and  speech  and  manner  they 
may  conduct  themselves  so  much  like  Americans  that 
\  they  would  not  attract  the  least  unfavorable  attention 
if  it  were  not  that  their  external  racial  differences  mark 
them  out  and  stand  as  a  symbol  of  the  undesirable 
qualities  we  have  been  accustomed  to  associate  with 
the  lower  classes  of  Asiatics.  This  point  has  been  well 


178  The  Japanese  'Invasion 

brought  out  by  Dr.  Robert  E.  Park  in  his  recent  dis- 

r  cussion  of  racial  assimilation : 
I 

The  chief  obstacles  to  the  assimilation  of  the  Negro  and 

the  Oriental  are  not  mental  but  physical  traits.  It  is  not 
because  the  Negro  and  the  Japanese  are  so  differently  con- 
stituted that  they  do  not  assimilate.  If  they  were  given  an 
opportunity  the  Japanese  are  quite  as  capable  as  the 
Italians,  the  Armenians,  or  the  Slavs  of  acquiring  our 
culture  and  sharing  our  national  ideals.  The  trouble  is 
not  with  the  Japanese  mind  but  with  the  Japanese  skin. 
The  Jap  is  not  the  right  color.  The  fact  that  the  Jap- 
anese bears  in  his  features  a  distinctive  racial  hall  mark, 
that  he  wears,  so  to  speak,  a  racial  uniform,  classifies  him. 
He  cannot  become  a  mere  individual  indistinguishable  in 
the  cosmopolitan  mass  .of  the  population,  as  is  true,  for 
example,  of  the  Irish  and  to  a  lesser  extent  of  some  of 
the  other  immigrant  races.  The  Japanese,  like  the  Negro, 
is  condemned  to  remain  among  us  an  abstraction,  a  sym- 
bol, and  a  symbol  not  merely  of  his  own  race  but  of  the 
Orient  and  of  that  vague,  ill-defined  menace  we  some- 
times refer  to  as  the  "Yellow  Peril."  This  not  only 
determines  to  a  very  large  extent  the  attitude  of  the  whole 
world  toward  the  yellow  man,  but  it  determines  the  atti- 
tude of  the  yellow  man  to  the  white.  It  puts  between  the 
races  the  invisible  but  very  real  gulf  of  self-conscious- 
ness.1 

The  significance  of  this  aspect  of  the  Japanese 
problem  has  not  been  sufficiently  emphasized.  Those 
who  have  regarded  the  problem  as  fundamentally 
racial  have  usually  based  their  arguments  on  mental 
rather  than  physical  grounds.  The  claim  that  they 

1  Park,  R.  E.,  "  Racial  Assimilation  in  Secondary  Groups," 
Amer.  Journ.  Soc.,  March,  1914,  pp.  610-11. 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  179 

put  forth  is  that  the  Japanese  are  incompatible  with 
American  civilization  because  of  their  mental  traits, 
mode  of  life,  and  ways  of  doing  things,  an  argument 
that  is  by  no  means  convincing,  because  it  can  be 
shown  that  all  these  characteristics  are  a  result  of  social 
heredity,  and  therefore  are  capable  of  being  modified 
in  a  new  environment.  It  is  not  a  mere  matter  of 
capacity  for  mental  assimilation.  This  is  all  that  is 
involved  in  the  case  of  the  European  immigrants,  who 
do  not  diverge  radically  from  the  physical  type  most 
common  in  the  West.  When  they  have  adopted  Amer- 
ican standards  and  ways  of  living,  they  are  to  all 
outward  appearance  American  citizens  and  become 
accepted  members  of  American  communities.  The 
problem,  however,  is  not  so  simple  for  the  Orientals. 
They  may  show  just  as  much  skill  as  the  Europeans 
in  making  a  place  for  themselves  in  their  new  environ- 
ment. The  Japanese,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  are  peculiarly 
responsive  to  strange  surroundings,  and,  if  given  a 
fair  chance,  might  surpass  other  nationalities  in  their 
ability  to  acquire  American  culture.  But  the  difficulty 
is  that  they  are  not  given  a  fair  chance.  Belonging 
as  they  do  to  a  divergent  physical  type,  they  are  set 
apart  in  a  group  of  their  own,  and  are  denied  the  best 
opportunities  for  assimilation.  Even  though  they 
overcome  this  handicap  and  succeed  in  Americanizing 
themselves,  they  still  to  all  outward  appearance  remain 
Japanese  and  are  classified  as  such  by  those  with  whom 
they  associate. 

The  possession  of  racial  marks  or  of  physical  char- 


i8o  The  Japanese  Invasion 

acteristics  that  differentiate  the  incoming  from  the 
predominant  group  is  a  factor  in  the  oriental  immi- 
gration problem  that  cannot  be  ignored.  The  im- 
migrants whose  physical  appearance  is  such  that  they 
cannot  within  a  reasonable  time  conceal  their  identity 
by  the  mask  of  Americanism  inevitably  bring  in  a  race 
problem.  Entirely  apart  from  the  question  of  differ- 
ences in  the  type  of  civilization,  the  German  and  the 
Japanese  immigrants  cannot  be  regarded  as  having  an 
equal  chance  in  their  struggle  for  existence  under 
American  conditions.  In  the  one  case  prejudice  dis- 
appears as  soon  as  the  necessary  adjustments  are  made, 
while  in  the  other  it  tends  to  be  perpetuated  because 
external  marks  continually  proclaim  their  foreign 
origin  and  arouse  the  antipathies  that  are  felt  for 
people  of  a  widely  different  race. 

It  is  not  a  question  whether  their  physical  character- 
istics are  attractive  or  repulsive  to  Americans.  The 
problem  is  not  lessened  by  the  fact  that  the  color  of 
the  Japanese  is  hardly  more  pronounced  than  is  that 
of  the  people  of  southern  Europe.  Even  when  due 
allowance  is  made  for  their  changes  in  physical  appear- 
ance brought  about  by  their  reaction  to  their  new 
environment  —  changes  in  the  cast  of  countenance  and 
in  the  peculiar  mannerisms  which  play  an  important 
part  in  intensifying  racial  distinctions  —  the  funda- 
mental fact  still  remains  that  their  physical  type  marks 
them  out  as  Orientals  wherever  they  are,  and  suggests 
to  us  all  the  undesirable  connotations  that  are  bound 
up  with  the  word  "Asiatics." 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  181 

It  is  only  by  a  recognition  of  this  fact  that  the  eco- 
nomic issue  which  complicates  the  problem  can  be  seen 
in  its  right  perspective.  It  has  become  the  fashion  in 
some  quarters  to  ignore  or  minimize  differences  of 
race  and  to  treat  the  question  as  though  it  were  merely 
a  matter  for  economic  adjustment.  Thus  Dr.  Clay 
MacCauley  in  a  recent  article  published  in  a  Japanese 
magazine  says : 

As  I  see  it,  "  The  American- Japanese  Problem/'  how- 
ever much  other  factors  may  affect  it,  is  primarily  and 

essentially  economic It  is  altogether  a  radical  error 

to  burden  this  economic  question  with  an  influence  so 
irrelevant  and,  in  reality,  so  fictitious  as  "  difference  of 
race/'  The  issue  is  essentially  economic,  and  upon  eco- 
nomic grounds  it  should,  and  I  believe  will,  receive  its 
solution.1 

Such  a  point  of  view  which  would  regard  racial 
differences  as  irrelevant  factors  is  based  more  upon 
what  ought  to  be  than  upon  what  actually  seems  to  be 
the  case.  In  the  rise  and  development  of  the  Japanese 
problem  nothing  has  been  more  real  than  the  preju- 
dice existing  against  the  Japanese.  It  has  been  the, 
agitation  against  them  as  a  race  which  has  given  this! 
problem  its  peculiar  quality.  .  The  economic  aspect  of 
the  question  has,  of  course,  been  an  important  factor, 
for  the  Japanese  immigrants  have  been  engaged  in  a 
struggle  for  existence  that  has  naturally  aroused  the 
fear  of  severe  economic  competition.  It  is,  however, 

1  MacCauley,  Clay,  "  The  American- Japanese  Problem,"  Rikugo 
Zasshi,  April,  1915. 


182  The  Japanese  Invasion 

a  superficial  view  which  would  find  the  root  of  the 
problem  in  economic  rivalry.  The  discrimination 
against  the  Japanese,  which  has  debarred  them  from 
many  of  the  desirable  trades,  is  economic  in  the  sense 
that  it  is  an  attempt  to  decrease  competition,  but  it  has 
been  made  possible  only  by  the  fact  that  the  Japanese 
are  unable  to  conceal  their  race  affiliations.  If  they 
had  been  able,  like  the  Europeans,  gradually  to  merge 
themselves  unnoticed  among  American  workingmen, 
there  would  have  been  much  less  tendency  to  over- 
emphasize the  economic  difficulties. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  within  the  past  few  years  the 
chief  economic  problems  connected  with  the  Japanese 
immigrants  have  been  to  a  large  extent  adjusted,  \\ith 
the  coming  into  effect  of  the  "  gentlemen's  agreement/' 
the  people  of  California  need  no  longer  fear  an  inva- 
sion of  Japanese  laborers.  Thousands  of  Japanese 
have  succeeded  in  making  a  place  for  themselves  in 
the  kind  of  agricultural  work  that  is  not  attractive  to 
white  workmen,  and  so  are  not  considered  as  rivals. 
Many  large  ranch  owners  have  found  the  Japanese 
so  satisfactory  as  seasonal  farm  laborers  that  they  are 
making  strong  protests  against  any  policy  designed  to 
cut  off  all  Japanese  immigration.  As  the  Japanese 
have  become  more  accustomed  to  American  conditions 
they  have  raised  their  standard  of  living  and  are  no 
longer  making  a  practice  of  underbidding  in  the  labor 
market.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  lessened  economic  fric- 
tion, the  prejudice  against  the  Japanese  remains,  seem- 
ingly, as  strong  as  ever.  Even  in  places  where  there 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  183 

is  practically  no  competition  with  the  Japanese,  there 
are  very  few  signs  that  racial  barriers  are  breaking 
down.  They  are  still  held  aloof,  not  primarily  on  eco- 
nomic grounds,  but  because  they  wear  a  racial  uniform 
which  stands  as  a  symbol  of  all  the  vague,  half- 
conscious  fears,  as  well  as  of  the  feeling  of  strange- 
ness and  unlikeness  that  we  have  had  for  the  Orientals. 

It  is  this  same  fact  of  a  divergent  physical  type  that 
intensifies  many  minor  causes  of  difficulty  which  other- 
wise would  not  attract  serious  attention.  The  low 
status  of  many  of  the  Japanese  immigrants,  their  agi- 
tation for  their  rights,  their  tendency  toward  clannish- 
ness,  their  reputation  for  business  dishonesty,  their 
overzealous  patriotism,  and  their  religious  differences 
easily  become  magnified  out  of  all  due  proportions 
because  they  are  associated  with  the  people  of  a  race 
widely  different  from  our  own.  In  themselves  these 
supposed  characteristics  of  the  Japanese  do  not  pos- 
sess great  importance.  They  can,  in  fact,  be  affirmed 
of  many  of  our  immigrants  from  Europe,  and  are 
merely  factors  that  enter  into  the  immigration  problem 
as  a  whole. 

Their  increased  significance  in  the  case  of  the 
Japanese  arises  from  the  fact  that  they  must  live 
among  us  as  a  separate  racial  group,  thus  making  it 
inevitable  that  the  undesirable  attributes  of  the  few 
should  be  regarded  as  peculiar  to  the  whole  race.  This 
has  been  the  real  reason  why  the  organized  campaign 
against  the  Japanese  in  California  has  been  carried 
on  with  such  a  large  degree  of  success.  The  labor 


184  The  Japanese  Invasion 

leaders  and  the  politicians  could  never  have  made  the 
Japanese  problem  a  national  one  without  the  aid  of 
this  background  of  racial  difference.  The  economic 
difficulties  and  the  various  charges  against  the  Japa- 
nese which  were  used  as  campaign  issues  gained  their 
significance  because  the  Japanese  could  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished as  a  separate  group  from  among  the  mass 
of  the  American  people. 

When  due  recognition  is  given  to  this  fact,  the  diffi- 
culty of  arrivingvat  a  satisfactory  solution  is  easily 
seen.  It  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  economic  adjust- 
ment, although  this  is  highly  important.  More  is 
involved  than  the  promotion  of  a  better  mutual  under- 
standing between  the  people  of  the  two  countries.  The 
fundamental  problem  is  how  to  make  possible  the 
mingling  of  the  white  and  colored  races  on  terms  of 
social  equality  based  on  mutual  friendship  and  good 
will.  This  is  an  experiment  that  has  never  yet  been 
worked  out  satisfactorily  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
whether  with  the  dark  races  from  Africa  or  with  the 
more  light-colored  peoples  of  the  Far  East.  When- 
ever there  has  been  a  meeting  of  the  white  and  colored 
races,  the  whites  have  always  assumed  an  attitude  of 
superiority,  regardless  of  the  ability  and  the  state  of 
culture  of  their  colored  associates. 

The  Japanese  are  the  first  among  the  colored  peoples 
to  possess  sufficient  national  prestige  and  military 
power  to  make  a  strong  protest  against  this  humiliat- 
.ing  treatment.  Instead  of  acquiescing  in  the  position 
assigned  them,  as,  on  the  whole,  the  great  mass  of 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  185 

the  Negroes  seem  disposed  to  do,  they  have  taken  a 
bold  stand  for  their  rights  and  insist  that  there  shall 
be  no  discrimination  against  them.  Back  of  all  their 
demands  in  connection  with  the  problem  of  immigra- 
tion is  their  determination  to  be  received  and  treated 
as  equals  in  every  way,  both  socially  and  politically. 
No  matter  what  terms  they  may  be  willing  to  accept 
now  for  the  sake  of  expediency,  they  will  ultimately 
be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than  the  recognition  of 
manhood  equality  with  all  that  it  involves  in  the  way 
of  political  rights  and  social  intercourse. 

It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  a  problem  of  this  nature 
cannot  be  solved  entirely  by  legislation.  Even  though 
laws  were  enacted  guaranteeing  to  the  Japanese  all 
the  rights  now  enjoyed  by  Europeans,  the  present  ten- 
sion between  the  two  nations  would  by  no  means  be 
relieved.  On  the  contrary,  to  the  extent  that  the 
Japanese  would  avail  themselves  of  their  opportunity 
to  emigrate  to  America  in  unrestricted  numbers,  fric- 
tion would  increase  and  would  likely  lead  to  unfor- 
tunate results.  The  necessity  of  restricted  immigration 
must  be  recognized.  Says  Professor  Millis: 

Injury  would  come  to  both  parties  in  the  event  that 
immigration  brought  any  considerable  number  of  Asiatics 
to  our  shores  to  share  the  soil  with  the  elements  in  the 
white  population  of  the  West.  Any  immigration  policy 
adopted  must  be  based  upon  a  recognition  of  this  fact. 
Otherwise  it  will  only  create  problems ;  it  will  not  solve 
them.1 

1  Millis,  H.  A.,  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States,  p. 


186  The  Japanese  Invasion 

Dr.  Gulick  states  this  same  point  in  an  even  more 
forcible  way: 

Were  immigration  as  freely  granted  to  Asiatics  as  it  has 
been  to  Europeans,  the  Pacific  coast  states  would  un- 
doubtedly be  invaded  by  millions  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years.  Coming  by  the  hundred  thousand  annually,  they 
could  not  learn  our  language,  nor  we  theirs.  Assimila- 
tion and  mutual  understanding  would  be  impossible.  The 
result  would  be  Asiatic  and  American  institutions  and 
customs  struggling  side  by  side,  an  imperium  in  imperio, 
with  endless  rivalry  and  serious  danger  of  collision.1 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  legislation  designed  to 
grant  the  Japanese  the  rights  they  desire  to  obtain 
would  result  only  in  a  more  aggravated  situation.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  passage  of  an  exclusion  law,  or 
even  the  continuance  of  the  existing  "  gentlemen's 
agreement,"  is  objectionable  to  the  Japanese  because 
of  its  discrimination  against  them.  In  order  to  avoid 
this  dilemma  and  make  possible  restriction  without 
discrimination,  Dr.  Gulick  has  proposed  the  enactment 
of  a  general  immigration  law  which  would  apply 
impartially  to  all  nations. 

A  law  which  would,  in  his  opinion,  meet  the  needs  of 
the  case  has  been  stated  by  him  in  the  form  of  the  fol- 
lowing amendment  to  the  Immigration  Act  now  in 
force : 

Provided,  That  the  number  of  aliens  of  any  race  (single 
mother-tongue  group),  who  may  be  admitted  to  the 
United  States  in  any  fiscal  year  shall  be  limited  to  five 

1  From  an  address  delivered  before  the  Senate  Committee  on 
Immigration  and  Naturalization,  Jan.  31,  1914. 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  187 

per  cent  of  the  number  of  native-born  persons  of  the  first 
generation,  together  with  the  number  of  naturalized  citi- 
zens of  that  race  in  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the 
national  census  next  preceding ;  except  that  aliens  return- 
ing from  a  temporary  visit  abroad;  aliens  coming  to  join 
a  husband,  wife,  father,  mother,  son,  daughter,  grand- 
father, grandmother,  grandson,  granddaughter ;  aliens 
who  are  government  officers,  and  aliens  who  are  travelers 
or  visitors  and  who  do  not  engage  in  any  remunerative 
occupation  or  business  in  the  United  States,  shall  not  be 
included  within  the  five  per  cent  limit  above  provided. 
Provided,  further,  that  all  laws  relative  to  the  exclusion 
of  Chinese  persons  or  persons  of  Chinese  descent  are 
hereby  repealed.1 

The  fundamental  purpose  of  this  proposed  law  is  to 
make  possible  the  treatment  of  all  races  on  the  basis  of 
equality,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  the  coming 
of  a  larger  number  of  immigrants  from  any  one  race 
than  could  be  readily  assimilated.  As  it  would  practi- 
cally work  out,  it  would  allow  full  immigration  from 
the  countries  of  northern  Europe  except  Russia,  would 
decrease  the  number  of  immigrants  from  southern 
Europe  about  eighty  per  cent,  and  would  permit  about 
one  thousand  each  year  to  come  from  China  and  the 
same  number  from  Japan.  While  such  a  law  theo- 
retically seems  adapted  to  meet  the  present  situation, 
it  is  such  a  radical  departure  from  our  traditional 
policy  concerning  European  immigration  that  it  is 
doubtful  if  in  the  near  future  it  would  receive  the 
support  of  the  American  public.  It  contains  the  impli- 

1  From  address  before  the  Senate  Committee  on  Immigration 
and  Naturalization,  Jan.  31,  1914. 


i88  The  Japanese  Invasion 

cation  that  the  very  evident  and  practical  differences 
between  the  Asiatic  and  European  immigration  are  not 
of  sufficient  importance  to  deserve  recognition.  There 
is  in  it  also  the  tacit  assumption  that  all  alien  peoples 
have  the  right  to  equal  treatment,  irrespective  of  what 
may  seem  to  be  to  the  best  interests  of  all  concerned. 
The  possible  effects  of  this  upon  our  rights  of  sover- 
eignty, as  well  as  upon  our  international  status,  ought 
to  be  carefully  weighed  before  the  adoption  of  such 
a  change  in  our  immigration  policy.  Furthermore, 
such  a  law  is  unlikely  to  prove  pleasing  to  the  Japanese 
people,  who  to  all  practical  intents  and  purposes,  even 
if  not  theoretically,  would  be  discriminated  against 
because  they  would  still  be  deprived  of  the  privilege 
of  coming  to  the  United  States  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  would  the  majority  of  the  European 
peoples.  It  would  seem  far  better  to  recognize  frankly 
the  existence  of  a  different  problem  in  the  Asiatic 
immigration  that  makes  necessary  for  the  present  the 
adoption  of  a  special  policy  which  can  only  gradually 
approximate  that  designed  to  regulate  the  immigration 
from  Europe. 

Efforts  to  secure  legislation  that  would  ignore  the 
existence  of  race  factors  may  not  be  the  best  means 
of  overcoming  race  prejudice.  On  the  contrary,  such 
legislation,  unless  it  is  satisfactory  to  those  most 
vitally  affected  by  it,  would  involve  us  in  more  serious 
difficulties.  Laws  designed  to  remove  the  disabilities 
of  the  Japanese  can  by  no  means  be  regarded  as  the 
final  solution  of  the  problem.  The  fault  is  not  pri- 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  189 

marily  with  our  laws,  but  with  our  attitude  of  mind 
toward  the  eastern  races.  Notwithstanding  the  tend- 
ency in  some  quarters  to  ignore  it,  our  attitude  toward 
the  Oriental  is  very  different  from  our  attitude  toward 
the  European.  The  natural  feeling  of  difference  of 
race  that  is  called  out  by  the  presence  of  any  foreigner 
is  intensified  in  the  case  of  the  Orientals  by  the  fact 
that  we  instinctively  place  them  in  a  different  social 
category  from  ourselves.  We  are  ready  to  admire 
their  skill  in  art  and  have  a  wholesome  respect  for 
their  military  efficiency,  but  we  feel  quite  sure  that 
they  do  not  belong  in  our  social  circle.  In  the  minds 
of  many  Westerners  the  Orientals  seem  mysterious 
and  uncanny — inhabitants,  so  to  speak,  of  another 
world,  with  whom  we  do  not  care  to  associate  and 
about  whose  accomplishments  we  have  a  tendency  to 
manifest  surprise.  Their  different  physical  type  pre- 
vents them  from  becoming  an  indistinguishable  part 
of  our  American  population,  and  this  aids  in  perpet- 
uating this  feeling  of  their  strangeness  and  inferiority. 
As  long  as  such  a  feeling  as  this  exists  to  any  general 
extent,  legislation,  however  favorable  to  the  Japanese, 
will  be  of  little  avail  in  giving  them  full  entrance  into 
all  the  privileges  and  opportunities  of  American  life.1 

1  Viscount  Kaneko  in  a  recent  letter  to  Dr.  Shailer  Mathews 
voiced  this  same  opinion :  "  I  feel  that  so  long  as  the  racial 
prejudice  is  dominating  the  question,  the  change  of  heart  of  the 
people  is  necessary.  Until  that  was  accomplished,  no  matter  what 
treaty  or  diplomatic  agreement  might  be  reached  between  the  two 
governments  concerning  the  question,  it  could  not  be  regarded  as 
a  final  solution  of  the  problem." — The  Biblical  World,  June,  1915. 


The  Japanese  Invasion 


The  first  step  toward  a  solution  of  the  Japanese 
problem  must  be  a  willingness  on  the  part  of  both 
Japanese  and  Americans  to  recognize  the  importance 
of  the  racial  factors  involved.  This  is  naturally  a 
sensitive  point  with  the  Japanese,  for  they  are  in  the 
position  of  outsiders  trying  to  get  accepted  in  a  more 
attractive  social  circle.  Any  suggestion  that  the  real 
difficulty  is  racial  implies  their  lack  of  the  necessary 
qualifications  and,  of  course,  arouses  their  resentment. 
In  order  to  avoid  giving  offense,  the  fact  of  race  differ- 
ences is  usually  kept  in  the  background,  except  by  those 
who  are  strongly  anti-Japanese.  During  the  negotia- 
tions at  Washington  in  1913  between  Viscount  Chinda 
and  the  Federal  government  concerning  the  California 
alien  land  law,  the  Japanese  ambassador  was  given 
repeated  assurances  by  both  the  President  and  the 
Secretary  of  State  that  "  the  enactment  was  based  on 
purely  economic  considerations  and  was  not  the  out- 
come of  racial  prejudice."  This  official  hypocrisy  may 
perhaps  be  justified  on  diplomatic  grounds,  but  it  can 
hardly  be  contended  that  such  declarations  convince 
anybody,  least  of  all  the  Japanese,  that  race  prejudice 
has  played  such  an  insignificant  part  in  the  American- 
Japanese  problem.  The  fact  that  race  prejudice  is 
always  unreasoning,  that  it  is  found  in  its  most  virulent 
form  among  the  lower  classes,  and  that  it  betrays  a 
narrowness  of  mind  and  a  provincialism  incompatible 
with  an  ideal  state  of  culture,  does  not  justify  us  in 
minimizing  its  importance  or  in  pretending  that  it  does 
not  exist.  Such  a  policy  results  only  in  further  mis- 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  191 

understandings  and  in  more  strained  relations  because 
of  its  lack  of  frankness  and  sincerity. 

The  fact  that  the  fundamental  point  at  issue  is  a 
problem  of  race  need  not  make  us  despair  of  finding 
a  satisfactory  way  out.  Race  prejudice  is  not  so  deeply 
rooted  that  it  cannot  be  eradicated.  It  is  largely  a 
superficial  matter  and  tends  to  break  down  with  con- 
stant association.  In  so  far  as  our  antipathy  to  the 
Japanese  is  based  upon  their  strangeness  and  their  lack 
of  conformity  to  our  western  type,  it  will  gradually 
disappear  as  the  two  races  become  more  familiar  with 
each  other.  Even  now  the  peculiar  physiognomy  of 
the  Japanese  is  not  repulsive  to  us.  It  arouses  preju- 
dice largely  because  it  stands  as  a  symbol  of  the  Orient, 
continually  reminding  us  of  the  gulf  between  the  two 
races. 

While  all  this  tends  to  break  down  in  time,  under 
favorable  conditions,  we  must  not  forget  that  a  satis- 
factory solution  will  not  follow  necessarily  as  a  matter 
of  course.  When  strong  prejudice  exists  against  such 
a  clever  and  ambitious  people  as  the  Japanese,  there 
is  a  real  danger  that  the  final  result  will  not  be  assimi- 
lation, but  mere  adaptation.  Instead  of  becoming  a 
real  part  of  all  our  varied  activities,  they  may  be  driven 
into  a  separate  group  that  is  compelled  to  maintain 
itself  by  feeding  upon  rather  than  furthering  the 
interests  of  the  American  community.  They  will  never 
occupy  the  subordinate  position  we  assign  to  the 
Negroes  and  be  content  to  do  the  drudgery  expected 
of  inferiors.  Their  reaction  to  segregation  will  more 


192  The  Japanese  Invasion 

likely  be  similar  to  that  of  the  Jews,  who,  in  spite  of 
their  many  excellent  qualities,  have  tended  to  make  a 
place  for  themselves  in  the  European  countries  where 
prejudice  against  them  was  strongest  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  moral  weakness  and  disorganization  of 
the  people  among  whom  they  lived.  A  clever  people 
like  the  Japanese  will  make  a  place  for  themselves  in 
America  in  spite  of  all  obstacles.  Just  what  will  be 
the  nature  of  the  place  that  our  race  prejudice  will 
compel  them  to  occupy  is  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration. 

This  suggests  the  importance  of  a  strict  limitation 
of  the  problem  by  bringing  about  the  mingling  of  the 
people  of  the  East  and  the  West  only  under  circum- 
stances most  favorable  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  each 
other's  essential  character.  In  order  to  bring  this 
about,  patience  as  well  as  mutual  forbearance  is  neces- 
sary. The  Japanese  must  see  the  wisdom  of  permitting 
only  the  best  representatives  of  their  race  to  come  to 
America.  We' Americans,  on  our  part,  must  rise  above 
our  petty  provincialism  which  makes  us  unwilling  to 
recognize  true  worth  in  men  of  different  race.  It  is 
too  much  to  expect  that  either  nation  will  suddenly 
make  such  a  radical  change  in  its  attitude.  The  best 
that  we  can  hope  is  that  wise  statesmanship  will  guide 
the  policies  of  the  two  countries  while  necessary  ad- 
justments are  being  made  in  their  international  rela- 
tions. Race  problems  admit  of  no  categorical  solution 
by  the  fiat  of  the  legislator  or  by  the  exhortations  of 
peace  advocates,  for  they  gain  their  strength  from 


Japanese  as  a  Race  Problem  193 

slow-moving  and  powerful  forces  that  have  made 
possible  the  development  of  race  solidarity.  The 
American- Japanese  problem  must  be  worked  out  by  a 
gradual  process  which  it  may  take  generations  in  order 
to  make  complete. 

In  the  meantime  nothing  is  more  fraught  with  peril 
than  the  continuance  of  our  present  half  -hearted  and 
irresolute  policy  toward  the  Far  East.  We  are  so 
obsessed  with  our  feelings  of  self-sufficiency  and  supe- 
riority that  we  fail  to  appreciate  the  real  significance 
of  the  oriental  problem.  We  seem  to  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  the  few  thousand  Orientals  in  our  country 
are  but  the  vanguard  of  many  millions  in  Asia  who 
are  eagerly  awaiting  the  chance  to  cross  the  Pacific. 
The  movement  is  one  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  repress, 
because  the  motive  force  behind  it  is  economic  —  the 
struggle  for  existence  under  conditions  that  are  too 
hard  to  be  borne. 

From  the  standpoint  of  Asia  the  problem  is  of  vital 
importance.  It  is  the  outward  thrust  of  a  surplus 
population  seeking  a  better  place  for  itself  in  the 
world.  When  this  oriental  horde  reaches  America  it 
is  inevitable  that  the  situation  should  be  further  com- 
plicated by  the  factor  of  racial  conflict.  The  Orientals 
face  here  a  different  civilization,  and  cannot  be  readily 
assimilated  because  of  differences  of  race.  The  in- 
creased economic  competition  and  their  lower  standards 
of  living  intensify  the  racial  animosities  and  make 
more  remote  the  possibility  of  a  satisfactory  solution. 

For  two  generations  a  few  thousand  Chinese  have 


194  The  Japanese  Invasion 

been  living  among  us,  and  hardly  a  step  has  been  made 
toward  their  assimilation.  After  twenty-five  years' 
contact  with  such  an  adaptable  people  as  the  Japanese, 
we  find  them  still  forced  to  live  in  segregation,  deprived 
of  the  best  opportunities  for  success  in  our  industrial 
life.  In  spite  of  this,  the  Japanese  insist  upon  their 
right  to  enter  America.  Back  of  their  insistence  is  the 
pressure  of  economic  necessity,  which  is  being  increas- 
ingly felt  throughout  the  whole  Orient.  To  the  sig- 
nificance of  this  situation  we  remain  blindly  indifferent. 
Our  present  temporizing  policy,  together  with  our  lack 
of  military  preparedness,  is  earning  for  us  the  con- 
tempt of  the  Far  East,  and  may  help  to  precipitate  the 
conflict  we  are  trying  to  avoid. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  WORLD  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  WAKING  ASIA 

WHAT  Japan  has  now  to  do  is  to  keep  perfectly  quiet, 
to  lull  the  suspicions  that  have  arisen  against  her, 
and  to  wait,  meanwhile  strengthening  the  foundations  of 
her  national  power,  watching  and  waiting  for  the  oppor- 
tunity which  must  one  day  surely  come  in  the  Orient. 
When  that  day  arrives,  she  will  be  able  to  follow  her  own 
course;  not  only  able  to  put  meddling  Powers  in  their 
places,  but  even,  as  necessity  arises,  to  meddle  with  the 
affairs  of  other  Powers.  Then  truly  she  will  be  able  to 
reap  advantage  for  herself. — Count  Hayashi. 

We  have  no  choice,  we  people  of  the  United  States,  as 
to  whether  or  not  we  shall  play  a  great  part  in  the  world. 
That  has  been  determined  for  us  by  fate,  by  the  march  of 
events.  We  have  to  play  that  part.  All  that  we  can 
decide  is  whether  we  shall  play  it  well  or  ill. — Roosevelt. 

As  students  of  the  West  we  are  vitally  concerned  with 
the  awakening  of  half  our  world.  Whether  we  will  or  not 
the  East  is  upon  us.  For  good  or  evil,  Asia  is  at  our 
door.  We  must  help  to  solve  the  problem  we  have  done 
so  much  to  create,  and  for  the  solution  of  which  we  hold 
the  key. — Sherwood  Eddy. 

That  Asia  is  awake  and  is  becoming  increasingly 
conscious  of  its  strength  is  a  fact  that  can  no  longer 
be  ignored.  For  many  years  the  West  has  found  it 
very  convenient  and  quite  to  its  own  interest  to  regard 

195 


196  The  Japanese  Invasion 

the  Orient  as  a  sleeping  giant  which  could  be  exploited 
or  insulted  as  the  occasion  seemed  to  demand.  It  has 
been  assumed  that  the  white  man,  because  of  his  supe- 
rior intelligence  and  culture,  has  the  first  right  to  all 
the  desirable  places  in  the  world;  that  men  of  color 
should  do  the  bidding  of  the  white  man  and  contribute 
to  his  prosperity;  that  our  self-imposed  task  of  uplift- 
ing these  backward  races  should  atone  for  any  seeming 
wrong  and  injustice  that  we  may  cause  them  to  suffer. 
Such  assumptions  have  proved  so  advantageous  to  the 
West  that  we  have  been  loath  to  believe  that  the  revo- 
lutionary changes  in  the  East  have  any  serious  signifi- 
cance for  us.  While  Japan's  rapid  growth  in  military 
power,  her  victory  over  a  western  nation,  and  her 
imperialistic  ambitions  have  provoked  much  comment 
in  Europe  and  America,  there  has  been  too  little  effort 
made  to  see  the  bearing  of  it  all  upon  the  future  rela- 
tions of  the  East  and  the  West. 

In  many  quarters  it  has  been  the  tendency  to  regard 
the  awakening  in  Asia  as  confined  largely  to  Japan 
alone.  Western  writers  usually  describe  the  Japanese 
as  a  peculiarly  adaptable  people  who  possess  far  more 
than  other  Orientals  the  gift  of  profiting  by  contact 
with  foreign  civilization.  When  our  attention  is  called 
to  a  possible  yellow  peril,  we  comfort  ourselves  with 
the  thought  that  ambitious  Japan  is  only  a  small  island 
empire  and  that  the  vast  mass  of  the  Orient  is  still 
asleep.  But  the  whole  trend  of  recent  events  in  the 
Far  East  makes  it  clear  that  the  awakening  of  Asia 
cannot  be  limited  to  any  one  nation.  The  past  failure 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  197 

of  the  Chinese  to  profit  by  western  intercourse  must 
be  attributed  not  to  any  racial  inability,  but  to  their 
strong  prepossession  in  favor  of  their  own  civilization. 
Under  the  stress  of  the  necessity  of  protecting  their 
national  existence  they  are  showing  a  remarkable 
facility  in  learning  the  lessons  that  the  West  has  to 
teach.  It  is  now  plainly  evident  that  the  Chinese  mil- 
lions are  abandoning  their  complacent,  self-sufficient 
attitude  and  are  gathering  their  strength  in  a  more 
determined  and  effective  manner  than  has  ever  charac- 
terized them  in  the  past. 

That  the  general  awakening  in  eastern  Asia  will 
eventually  mean  a  military  struggle  between  the  East 
and  the  West  is  a  possibility  about  which  it  is  useless 
to  speculate.  We  may  be  sure,  however,  that  these 
changes  now  going  on  in  the  East  will  involve  radical 
readjustments  in  our  international  relations  with 
oriental  powers.  The  West  has  already  learned  the 
necessity  of  dealing  with  Japan  as  an  equal.  When 
China  has  gained  sufficient  prestige  to  demand  similar 
treatment  our  old  attitude  of  superiority  and  conde- 
scension toward  the  yellow  races  can  be  maintained 
only  at  our  peril.  Foreign  aggression  in  the  Orient 
will  then  be  no  longer  tolerated.  The  right  of  oriental 
nations  to  govern  their  own  territories  will  be  recog- 
nized as  the  natural  thing.  The  sorry  spectacle  of  the 
great  Chinese  nation  split  up  into  a  number  of  foreign 
principalities  will  only  be  a  matter  of  historical  interest. 

It  is  conceivable  that  the  revolutionary  readjustment 
of  western  relations  with  the  Orient  may  take  place 


198  The  Japanese  Invasion 

without  force  of  arms.  Eastern  peoples  have  too  great 
a  recognition  of  the  value  of  trade  to  wish  to  drive 
the  West  out  of  the  East.  They  will  insist  on  their 
right  to  rule  themselves,  but  economic  necessity  will 
insure  a  ready  welcome  for  foreign  capital  and  will 
make  the  presence  of  foreign  business  men  a  necessary 
factor  in  their  business  and  industrial  life. 

The  world  significance  of  waking  Asia  must  be 
found  not  so  much  in  a  military  yellow  peril  that  will 
close  the  open  door  in  the  East,  but  rather  in  the  in- 
creased stimulus  that  will  be  given  to  emigration  from 
the  Orient  to  the  West.  Up  to  the  present  time  western 
opposition  to  oriental  immigration  has  kept  back  the 
stream  of  Asiatics  that  has  threatened  to  pour  into  the 
more  sparsely  settled  regions  of  the  western  world. 
Whenever  the  Orientals  have  tried  to  better  their  lot 
by  sharing  in  the  opportunities  to  be  found  in  the  coun- 
tries dominated  by  white  men,  they  have  met  with  a 
stern  rebuff.  Their  exclusion  thus  far  has  not  caused 
serious  trouble.  With  the  balance  of  power  in  our 
hands,  they  did  not  dare  to  question  the  justice  of 
our  decision. 

But  with  Asia  thoroughly  awake  the  problem  may 
not  be  so  easily  solved.  It  is  not  merely  a  question  of 
the  oriental  nations  gaining  sufficient  military  power 
to  compel  us  to  adopt  a  different  policy.  The  point  of 
even  more  vital  significance  is  the  fact  that  an  awak- 
ened Orient  will  have  new  desires  that  their  country 
cannot  satisfy  and  which  will  make  almost  resistless 
the  tendency  to  emigrate  to  lands  that  offer  better 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  199 

opportunities.  When  five  hundred  millions  of  Asiatics 
become  filled  with  the  restless  spirit  that  results  from 
contact  with  a  higher  standard  of  living,  existing 
treaties  may  prove  to  be  ineffectual  barriers  to  the 
oriental  invasion. 

It  is  this  aspect  of  the  oriental  problem  that  vitally 
concerns  the  western  world.  On  the  one  hand,  we 
have  the  sparsely  settled  countries  of  the  West,  with 
their  wonderful  opportunities  for  exploitation  and 
development;  on  the  other,  the  constant  push  of  eco- 
nomic forces  literally  driving  the  people  of  the  crowded 
East  out  into  the  more  favored  lands  where  the  condi- 
tions of  life  are  not  so  hard.  It  is  at  once  evident  that 
here  exists  a  situation  with  which  it  will  be  difficult  to 
deal.  It  involves  more  than  the  question  of  an  armed 
Orient  ready  to  fight  for  its  honor  and  for  the  things 
it  may  choose  to  demand.  The  motive  power  back  of 
the  movement  is  stronger  than  political  force.  It  is 
nothing  less  than  hunger,  the  desire  for  food  to  sustain 
life  and  make  possible  the  rearing  of  their  children  — 
a  fundamental  need  for  the  satisfaction  of  which  men 
will  stop  short  not  even  of  death. 

A  glance  at  present  conditions  in  the  Far  East  will 
at  once  make  clear  how  actively  these  economic  forces 
are  at  work.  Japan  is  now  in  a  stage  of  industrial 
transition.  The  old  handicraft  system  is  giving  way 
to  factories,  thus  throwing  out  of  employment  thou- 
sands of  skilled  artisans.  The  rapid  development  of 
industry  has  caused  a  movement  of  population  to  cities, 
with  all  of  its  attending  evils  of  congestion,  improper 


200  The  Japanese  Invasion 

sanitation,  hard  working  conditions,  and  low  wages. 
These  workmen  are  forbidden  by  law  to  try  to  better 
their  condition  by  organization.  They  are  ground 
under  the  heel  of  an  industrial  despotism  that  has 
served  to  increase  their  wants  without  giving  them  an 
adequate  chance  to  satisfy  them.  The  new  regime  has 
meant  a  great  increase  in  prices  without  a  correspond- 
ing increase  in  rates  of  wages.  Modern  science  has 
greatly  lowered  the  death  rate,  while  the  birth  rate 
has  not  been  checked.  With  an  annual  increase  of 
about  700,000  people,  competition  is  becoming  so  keen 
that  many  are  forced  to  the  wall.  The  government, 
instead  of  coming  to  the  rescue  of  its  people,  makes 
excessive  demands  both  in  military  service  and  in  direct 
taxation.  The  Japanese  are  in  fact  the  most  heavily 
taxed  people  in  the  world. 

All  this  has  brought  in  an  era  of  discontent  that  at 
times  threatens  the  stability  of  the  government.  So 
hard  is  the  struggle  for  existence  of  the  mass  of  the 
people  that  thousands  look  eagerly  for  a  chance  to  go 
abroad,  where  they  can  make  a  new  start  in  life.  The 
government,  in  their  attempt  to  guide  this  movement, 
have  sought  outlets  for  their  people  in  Korea  and  Man- 
churia. Thus  far  this  solution  of  their  problem  has 
resulted  in  failure.  The  difficulty  is  that  they  are 
countries  where  already  live  plenty  of  laborers  who 
have  even  a  lower  standard  of  living  than  the  Japanese. 
The  only  immigrants  who  can  succeed  there  are  those 
with  capital  to  invest  in  business  enterprises.  Penni- 
less and  unskilled  laborers  find  themselves  driven 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  201 

against  worse  conditions  than  they  had  to  face  in 
Japan. 

Consequently,  the  stream  of  emigration  tends  to  go 
to  America,  where  even  the  most  poverty-stricken 
workman  has  a  fair  chance  to  succeed.  Only  those 
who  have  lived  in  Japan  and  have  come  in  sympathetic 
touch  with  the  common  people  can  realize  how  preva- 
lent is  this  desire  to  go  to  America.  As  is  sometimes 
said,  America  is  the  land  of  their  dreams,  a  goal  far 
more  attractive  to  them  than  even  the  enchanting  para- 
dise pictured  by  popular  Buddhism.  This  strong 
desire  to  go  to  America  has  been  kept  in  check  only 
by  the  strict  regulations  of  the  government.  If  the 
bars  were  let  suddenly  down,  the  emigration  to 
America  would  not  be  by  thousands  but  by  tens  of 
thousands.  The  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
government  to  make  this  possible  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. In  their  statement  of  their  case  to  America 
they  usually  assert  that  the  motive  back  of  this  move- 
ment is  the  vindication  of  their  national  honor,  the 
determination  to  share  in  the  rights  granted  to  other 
nations.  In  reality,  although  the  Japanese  may  not  be 
fully  conscious  of  it,  the  motive  force  behind  it  all  is 
economic,  the  elemental  desire  for  a  better  chance  in 
life,  a  force  that  may  soon  be  beyond  the  power  of  their 
government  to  control  unless  impassable  barriers  are 
erected  abroad. 

When  we  turn  to  China  we  see  a  situation  as  yet 
less  acute  but  fraught  with  still  greater  consequences 
because  of  its  vast  population  and  the  extent  of  its 


202  The  Japanese  Invasion 

territory.  The  Chinese  people,  who  outnumber  us 
five  to  one,  are  facing  all  the  evils  of  overpopulation. 
Abject  need  has  taught  them  how  to  exist  on  the  low- 
est possible  scale  of  living.  Very  few  Americans 
realize  what  a  narrow  margin  separates  the  masses 
of  the  Chinese  from  starvation.  Dr.  Ross  gives  this 
vivid  picture  of  the  poverty  of  the  common  people : 

Though  the  farmer  thriftily  combs  his  harvest  field, 
every  foot  of  the  short  stubble  is  gone  over  again  by  poor 
women  and  children,  who  are  content  if  in  a  day's  glean- 
ing they  can  gather  a  handful  of  wheat  heads  to  keep 
them  alive  the  morrow.  On  the  Hongkong  water 
front  the  path  of  the  coolies  carrying  produce  between 
warehouse  and  junk  is  lined  with  tattered  women,  most 
of  them  with  a  baby  on  the  back.  Where  bags  of  beans  or 
rice  are  in  transit  a  dozen  wait  with  basket  and  brush  to 
sweep  up  the  grains  dropped  from  the  sacks,  while  others 
run  by  the  bearer,  if  his  sack  leaks  a  little,  to  catch  the 
particles  as  they  fall.  Where  sugar  is  being  unloaded,  a 
mob  of  gleaners  swarm  upon  the  lighter  the  moment  the 
last  sack  leaves  and  eagerly  scrape  from  the  gangplank 
and  the  deck  the  sugar  mixed  with  dirt  that  for  two  hours 
has  been  trampled  into  a  muck  by  the  bare  feet  of  two 
score  coolies  trotting  back  and  forth  across  a  dusty  road.1 

In  the  efforts  of  the  people  to  wring  a  living  for  them- 
selves out  of  the  soil,  the  arable  portions  of  China  are 
tilled  like  a  garden.  Intensive  agriculture  is  seen  there  at 
its  best.  Every  natural  resource,  no  matter  how  trifling, 
is  made  to  serve  its  purpose.  Weeds  and  leaves  of 
trees  are  carefully  gathered  for  fuel.  Almost  all  kinds 

1  Ross,  E.  A.,  The  Changing  Chinese,  p.  80. 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  203 

of  flesh  are  used  for  food.  Silkworms  are  eaten  after 
they  have  produced  their  silk.  Domestic  animals  that 
have  died  a  natural  death  find  their  way  to  the  larder. 
Rats  and  cats  and  dogs  are  on  sale  in  the  meat  markets. 
Even  entrails  are  not  disdained  as  an  article  of  diet. 
In  order  to  keep  themselves  from  starving,  the  coolie 
classes  must  work  far  beyond  their  strength.  The 
chair-bearers,  ricksha  men,  and  treadmill  coolies  wear 
themselves  out  in  a  few  years.  Their  children  while 
yet  too  young  must  take  their  places  and  aid  in  the 
struggle  for  food. 

In  the  midst  of  an  economic  situation  like  this,  where 
so  many  millions  live  perilously  near  the  poverty  line, 
the  vanguard  of  western  civilization  is  beginning  to 
exert  considerable  influence.  It  is  already  having  some 
effect  on  the  building  up  of  industry,  and  in  so  far 
as  it  is  able  to  do  this,  the  productive  power  of  the 
nation  is  increased  and  the  lot  of  the  people  will  be 
made  more  endurable. 

But  there  will  follow  other  significant  consequences, 
some  of  which  are  seldom  given  sufficient  considera- 
tion. Among  these  is  the  decreased  mortality  which 
will  come  about  through  the  efforts  of  modern  medical 
science.  At  present  the  mortality  among  infants  is 
appalling.  Statistics  are  not  available  for  whole 
China,  but  foreign  physicians  have  stated  that  in  the 
particular  cities  with  which  they  were  familiar  eighty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  children  die  before  the  end  of  the 
second  year.  The  death  rate  in  China  is  estimated  at 
about  fifty-five  per  thousand.  In  modernized  Japan, 


204  The  Japanese  Invasion 

where  the  benefits  of  medical  science  are  now  put 
within  reach  of  nearly  all  the  people,  they  have  lowered 
the  death  rate  to  twenty  per  thousand.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  similar  results  will  be  attained  in 
China  as  soon  as  the  government  enforces  laws  of 
sanitation  and  makes  possible  the  training  of  native 
physicians  in  sufficient  numbers  to  fight  successfully 
against  disease.  Dr.  Ross  says  further : 

But  to  lower  the  birth  rate  in  equal  degree,  that,  alas,  is 
quite  another  matter.  The  factors  responsible  for  the 
present  fecundity  of  fifty  to  sixty  per  thousand  —  three 
times  that  of  the  American  stock,  and  nowhere  matched 
in  the  white  man's  world,  unless  it  be  in  certain  districts 
in  Russia  and  certain  parishes  in  French  Canada  —  will 
not  yield  so  readily.  It  may  easily  take  the  rest  of  this 
century  to  overcome  ancestor  worship,  early  marriage,  the 
passion  for  big  families,  and  the  inferior  position  of  the 
wife.  For  at  least  a  generation  or  two  China  will  pro- 
duce rapidly  in  the  oriental  way  people  who  will  die  off 
slowly  in  the  occidental  way.  When  the  death  rate  has 
been  planed  down  to  twenty,  the  birth  rate  will  still  be 
more  than  double,  and  numbers  will  be  growing  at  the 
rate  of  over  two  per  cent  a  year.  Even  with  the  aid  of  a 
scientific  agriculture  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  make 
the  crops  of  China  feed  such  an  increase.  It  must  emi- 
grate or  starve.  It  is  the  outward  thrust  of  surplus  Jap- 
anese that  is  today  producing  dramatic  political  results  in 
Korea  and  Manchuria.  In  forty  or  fifty  years  there  will 
come  an  outward  thrust  of  surplus  Chinese  on  ten  times 
this  scale.  With  a  third  of  the  adults  able  to  read  and 
with  daily  newspapers  thrilling  the  remotest  village  with 
tidings  of  the  great  world,  eighteen  provinces  will  be 
pouring  forth  emigrants  instead  of  two.  To  Mexico, 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  205 

Central  and  South  America,  southwestern  Asia,  Asia 
Minor,  Africa,  and  even  old  Europe,  the  black-haired 
bread  seekers  will  stream,  and  then  "  What  shall  we  do 
with  the  Chinese?"  from  being  in  turn  a  Californian,  an 
Australian,  a  Canadian,  and  a  South  African  que'stion, 
will  become  a  world  question.1 

Another  important  effect  of  contact  with  western 
civilization,  already  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  quota- 
tion, is  the  development  of  means  of  communication 
which  will  make  possible  better  mobilization  of  the 
Chinese  millions.  At  present,  as  far  as  the  masses  of 
the  people  are  concerned,  they  are  far  removed  from 
western  influences.  Their  illiteracy  prevents  them 
from  following  the  news  of  the  world  in  the  news- 
paper press.  Lack  of  railways  and  poor  wagon  roads 
limit  lines  of  travel  largely  to  navigable  rivers.  Moving 
from  place  to  place  in  China  is  a  serious  matter,  in- 
volving much  time  and  inconvenience  as  well  as 
expense.  The  millions  in  interior  China  know  little 
of  the  West  and  possess  no  facilities  to  leave  their 
country  if  they  so  desired. 

All  this  will  be  changed  when  public  schools  make 
possible  the  wide  circulation  of  newspapers  and  when 
railways  connect  the  large  cities  throughout  the  dif- 
ferent provinces.  The  people  then  not  only  will  have 
a  wider  vision  of  the  world,  but  will  find  it  easily 
possible  to  go  abroad.  The  masses  will  feel  stirring 
within  them  a  growing  discontent  with  their  lot  in  life. 
Contact  with  higher  standards  of  living  will  arouse 

1  The  Changing  Chinese,  p.  no. 


206  The  Japanese  Invasion 

within  them  desires  beyond  their  power  to  satisfy.  It 
is  out  of  situations  like  this  that  great  migrations  arise. 
Conditions  in  the  Far  East  indicate  that  China  will 
soon  be  ripe  for  such  a  movement.  When  it  begins, 
western  civilization  will  be  put  to  a  severe  test  either 
in  stemming  the  tide  or  in  assimilating  the  hordes  from 
the  Orient. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  this  marvelous  westernization 
of  the  Orient,  in  which  we  take  much  pride,  is  putting 
into  motion  forces  which  may  soon  be  beyond  our 
power  to  control.  Some  have  foreseen  more  or  less 
clearly  the  trend  of  affairs  in  the  Far  East  and  have 
urged  that  while  yet  there  is  time  our  Pacific  coast  be 
made  a  racial  frontier  where  a  determined  stand  shall 
be  taken  against  the  oriental  immigrant  invasion.  To 
many,  such  an  attitude  seems  born  in  a  spirit  of  provin- 
cialism and  is  unworthy  of  a  hospitable  nation  like 
ours.  Unfortunately,  those  who  have  been  most  active 
in  their  efforts  to  promote  oriental  interests  in  Amer- 
ica have  seemingly  been  blind  to  the  significance  of 
waking  Asia.  Secure  in  their  belief  that  America  is 
strong  enough  to  dominate  any  situation  that  may 
arise,  they  have  advocated  a  temporizing  policy  which 
may  ultimately  involve  us  in  more  serious  complica- 
tions as  the  Orient  increases  in  strength. 

The  problem,  moreover,  is  one  that  will  not  respond 
readily  to  diplomatic  agreements.  The  Japanese  gov- 
ernment, with  the  best  intentions  in  the  world  toward 
America,  cannot  ignore  the  fundamental  conditions  in 
their  country  which  determine  the  trend  of  their 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  207 

national  policies.  For  at  least  another  generation, 
until  the  period  of  the  industrial  transition  in  Japan 
is  safely  past,  the  relentless  pressure  of  economic  forces 
must  play  a  predominant  part  in  Japan's  international 
relations.  The  fact  that  their  imperialistic  policy  of 
expansion  rests  on  what  seems  to  be  stern  necessity, 
and  not  entirely  upon  their  oft-mentioned  determina- 
tion to  secure  equal  rights  abroad,  should  give  us  suffi- 
cient assurance  of  their  intention  to  carry  it  out  in  the 
face  of  all  obstacles. 

It  is  very  clear  even  to  the  superficial  observer  that 
the  whole  Orient  is  now  passing  through  a  period  of 
transition  and  adjustment  which  produces  suffering 
and  discontent  among  vast  numbers  of  their  people. 
The  problems  their  governments  face  are  many  and 
serious.  In  their  time  of  stress  they  naturally  look  to 
the  West  for  assistance.  Where  we,  as  well  as  they, 
make  a  mistake,  is  in  supposing  that  the  open-door 
policy  on  our  part  would  be  an  important  step  in  im- 
proving their  situation.  This,  at  its  best,  would  only 
give  temporary  relief  and  would  not  touch  the  root  of 
their  trouble.  In  the  experience  of  European  countries, 
emigration  has  been  for  them  a  loss  rather  than  a  gain. 
The  ultimate  welfare  of  the  Orient  depends  not  on  its 
right  to  send  emigrants  abroad.  Its  progress  will  best 
be  furthered  by  removing  the  conditions  that  cause 
emigration.  This,  of  course,  cannot  be  done  at  once. 
It  will  mean  a  slow  and  painful  process  of  industrial 
development.  Wisely  directed  efforts  must  be  made 
along  the  line  of  birth  control.  The  standard  of  living 


2o8  The  Japanese  Invasion 

must  be  raised  until  the  mass  of  the  people  can  live  in 
reasonable  comfort.  When  all  this  is  attained,  the 
immigration  problem  will  no  longer  be  an  important 
issue,  and  the  open-door  policy  which  has  always  been 
one  of  the  ideals  of  our  nation  can  be  fully  carried 
out  with  Asia  as  well  as  Europe. 

While  such  a  solution  of  the  problem  is  much  to  be 
wished  for,  we  have  by  no  means  any  assurance  that  it 
will  be  brought  to  pass  within  the  immediate  future. 
On  the  contrary,  all  the  indications  in  the  Orient  seem 
to  point  in  a  different  direction.  Emigration,  to  the 
eastern  peoples,  seems  to  offer  a  quicker  and  more 
available  escape  from  their  economic  burdens  than  does 
the  more  fundamental  process  of  developing  the  re- 
sources of  their  country.  It  is  too  much  to  expect  that 
the  Orientals  will  exercise  more  restraint  about  emigra- 
tion than  have  the  people  of  Europe.  The  Japanese 
and  the  Chinese  feel  strongly  that  they  must  gain  the 
right  of  emigration  to  the  West.  Their  national  pol- 
icies are,  of  course,  constructed  with  this  desire  in  view, 
and  while  temporarily  this  aspect  of  them  is  held  in 
abeyance  it  has  by  no  means  been  fundamentally 
changed.  They  are  simply  waiting  for  a  more  favor- 
able opportunity  to  press  their  demands. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  Orient  will  not  always 
come  to  us  in  the  attitude  of  a  suppliant.  The  Orientals 
feel  deeply  that  their  cause  is  righteous,  and  their  hands 
are  strengthened  by  the  consciousness  of  growing 
power.  The  West  has  a  thousand  times  over  in  its 
aggressions  and  insults  given  the  East  good  and  suf- 


Significance  of  Waking  Asia  209 

ficient  cause  for  war.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  issue 
will  be  worked  out  along  peaceful  lines.  Whether  it 
will  or  not  depends  upon  our  skill  in  handling  the  situ- 
ation and  upon  the  prestige  that  our  country  possesses 
because  of  its  fighting  strength.  No  matter  how  much 
we  may  wish  to  escape  it,  the  issue  is  thrust  upon  us. 
America  is  the  frontier  where  must  meet  the  East  and 
the  West,  and  upon  the  result  of  this  meeting  hinge 
vast  consequences  for  the  whole  world. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  lists,  while  by  no  means  exhaustive, 
include  the  most  representative  books  and  articles 
bearing  on  the  subject. 

BOOKS 

BAILEY,  T.  P.  Race  Orthodoxy  in  the  South.  Neale  Pub- 
lishing Company,  New  York,  1914;  pp.  386. 

BENNETT,  J.  E.  Japan's  Message  to  America:  A  Reply.  San 
Francisco,  1914;  pp.  33  (pamphlet). 

BLAKESLEE,  G.  H.,  ed.  Japan  and  Japanese-American  Rela- 
tions. (A  compilation  of  a  conference  held  at  Clark 
University.)  G.  E.  Stechert  &  Co.,  New  York,  1912. 

BOAS,  FRANZ.  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man.  The  Macmillan 
Company,  New  York,  1911;  pp.  294. 

BRINKLEY,  F.  Japan,  Its  History,  Arts,  and  Literature.  J.  B. 
Millet  Co.,  Boston,  1901 ;  8  vol. 

BRYCE,  JAMES.  The  Relations  of  the  Advanced  and  the  Back- 
ward Races  of  Mankind.  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford,  1903 ; 
pp.  46. 

GARY,  OTIS.  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan.  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Company,  New  York,  1909;  2  vol. 

CLEMENT,  E.  W.  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan.  '  American 
Baptist  Publishing  Society,  Philadelphia,  1905  $  pp.  205. 

COLLIER,  PRICE.  The  West  in  the  East.  Duckworth  &  Co., 
London,  1911;  pp.  534- 

MONS,  J.  R.    Races  and  Immigrants  in  America.    The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1907;  pp.  242. 

CONKLIN,  E.  G.  Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Develop- 
ment of  Men.  Princeton  University  Press,  Princeton, 
1910;  pp.  533- 

COOLIDGE,  A.  C.  The  United  States  as  a  World-Power.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1908;  pp.  385. 

COOLIDGE,  MARY  R.  Chinese  Immigration.  Henry  Holt  and 
Company,  New  York,  1909;  pp.  531.  ' 

FAIRCHILD,  H.  P.  Immigration,  a  World  Movement,  and  Its 
Significance.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1913; 


PP.  455- 
i.    Jo 


FOSTER,    JOHN    W.    American    Diplomacy    in    the    Orient. 


Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1903;  pp.  498. 
GATES,   W.  A.     Oriental  Immigration  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
York,  1909;  pp.  12  (pamphlet). 
211 


212  The  Japanese  Invasion 

GULICK,  S.  L.    Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  Social  and  Psychic. 

Fleming  H.  Revell  Company,  New  York,  1903;  pp.  457. 
-*The  American  Japanese  Problem.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York,  1914;  pp.  349- 

The  White  Peril  in  the  Far  East.    Fleming  H.  Revell  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1905;  pp.  191. 
HARADA,  T.     The  Faith  of  Japan.    The  Macmillan  Company, 

New  York,  1914;  pp.  190. 
HAWKS,   F.    L.     Narrative  of  the  Expedition   of  Perry   to 

Japan.    D.  Appleton  and  Company,  New  York,  1856;  pp. 

624. 
HEARN,  LAFCADIO.    Japan:  An  Attempt  at  Interpretation.    The 

Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1904;  pp.  541. 
HIGHBORN,  F.    Story  of  the  California  Legislature  for  1913. 

James  H.  Barry  Company,  San  Francisco,  1913 ;  pp.  367. 
HORNBECK,  S.  K.    Contemporary  Politics  in  the  Far  East.    D. 

Appleton  and  Company,  New  York,  1916. 
JENKS,  J.  W.,  and  LAUCK,  W.  J.     The  Immigration  Problem. 

Funk  &  Wagnalls  Company,  New  York,  I9J3;  pp.  551. 
JORDAN,  D.  S.     War  and  Waste.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Com- 
pany, Garden  City,  1913;  pp.  296. 
KAWAKAMI,  K.   K.    American- Japanese  Relations.    Fleming 

H.  Revell  Company,  New  York,  1912 ;  pp.  370. 
<f  £&a  at  the  Door.    Fleming  H.  Revell  Company,  New  York, 

1914;  pp.  242. 
-r  LAN  MAN,  C.    The  Japanese  in  America.    New  York,  1872; 

PP-  352. 
LAWTON,  L.    The  Empires  of  the  Far  East.    Small,  Maynard 

&  Company,  Boston;  2  vol. 
LOWELL,  PERCIVAL.     The  Soul  of  the  Far  East.    Houghton 

Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1888;  pp.  226. 

MALLOY,  W.  M.     Treaties,  Conventions,  and  Agreements  be- 
tween the  United  States  of  America  and  Other  Powers. 

Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  1910-13;  3  vol. 
MARKING,  Y.     When  I  Was  a  Child.    London,  1913. 
MASAOKA,   N.,   ed.    Japan    to   America.     (A   symposium   of 

papers  by  leaders  of  thought  in  Japan.)     G.  P.  Putnam's 

Sons,  New  York,  1914;  pp.  262. 
**.  MECKLIN,  J.  M.    Democracy  and  Race  Friction:  A  Study  in 

Social    Ethics.    The    Macmillan    Company,    New    York, 

1914;  pp.  273. 
MILLARD,  T.  F.     The  Far  Eastern  Question.    T.  F.  Unwin, 

London,  1911;  pp.  576. 
The  New  Far  East.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York, 

1906;  pp.  319. 

,  H.  A.     The  Japanese  Problem  in  the  United  States. 

The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1915;  pp.  334. 


Bibliography  213 


MITFORD,  E.  B.  Japan's  Inheritance.  Dodd,  Mead  &  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1914. 

MURDOCH,  J.  A  History  of  Japan  during  Century  of  Early 
Foreign  Intercourse.  Kobe,  Japan,  1903;  pp.  743. 

NITOBE,  I.  The  Intercourse  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan.  The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore,  1891 ;  pp. 
108. 

The  Japanese  Nation.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York, 
1912;  pp.  334. 

NUTTALL,  Z.  Earliest  Historical  Relations  between  Mexico 
and  Japan.  University  of  California  Publications  of  Ar- 
chaeology and  Ethnology,  1906 ;  vol.  4,  No.  i ;  pp.  47- 

OKUMA,  COUNT.  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan.  Smith,  Elder 
&  Co.,  London,  1910;  2  vol. 

POOLEY,  A.  M.  Secret  Memoirs  of  Count  Tadasu  Hayashi. 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1915 ;  pp.  331. 

PORTER,  R.  P.  The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan.  Henry 
Froude,  London,  191 1 ;  pp.  789. 

REINSCH,  P.  S.  World  Politics  as  Influenced  by  the  Oriental 
Situation  in  1900.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York, 
1912;  pp.  366. 

—ROBERTS,  P.  The  New  Immigration.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1912;  pp.  386. 

Ross,  E.  A.     The  Changing  Chinese.    The  Century  Co.,  New 

York,  1911;  pp.  356. 

>-ROYCE,  J.  Race  Questions,  Provincialism  and  Other  Ameri- 
can Problems.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York, 
1908;  pp.  287. 

RUSSELL,  L.,  ed.  America  to  Japan.  (A  symposium  of 
papers  by  representative  citizens  of  the  United  States.) 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York,  1915 ;  pp.  318. 

SCHERER,  JAMES  A.  B.     The  Japanese  Crisis.     Frederick  A. 

Stokes  Company,  1916;  pp.  148. 
JSOYEDA,  J.    A  Survey  of  the  Japanese  Question  in  California. 

""Sail  Francisco,  1913;  pp.  16  (pamphlet). 
-SPILLER,  G.    Inter-Racial  Problems.    King  &  Sons,  London, 
1916;  pp.  485. 

STEPHEN  SON,  G.  T.  Race  Distinctions  in  American  Law. 
D.  Appleton  and  Company,  New  York,  1910;  pp.  388. 

,  A.  H.    Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem.    Dou- 
bleday,  Page  &  Company,  Garden  City,  1908;  pp.  555. 

,  B.  L.  P.    The  Conflict  of  Colour.    Macmillan  &  Co., 
London,  1910;  pp.  340. 

WILLIAMS,  S.  W.  Journal  of  the  Perry  Expedition  to  Japan. 
Trans.  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  1909;  vol.  37,  part  2; 

PP.  259- 


214  The  Japanese  Invasion 

UNSIGNED.    Japan  As  It  Is.    Compiled  by  H.  I.  J.  M.'s  Com 
mission  to  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition. 
Japan  Times  Press,  Tokyo,  1915;  pp.  530. 

UNSIGNED.    Japanese  Immigration.    The  Japanese   Associa- 
tion Of  the  Pacific  Northwest,  Seattle,  1907;  pp.  48. 

ARTICLES 

ABDULLAH,  ACHMED.    "The  Armed  Yellow  Fist."    Sunset— 

The  Pacific  Monthly,  Jan.,  1915,  pp.  96-101. 
ALDRIDGE,  F.    "The  New  Menace  in  the  Far  East"     North 

American  Review,  201:714-18  (1915). 
AOKI,    S.      "Japanese   Immigration."'    The    World's    Work, 

15:  10041-44  (1908). 
ARCHER,  W.    "Will  Japan  Ever  Fight  the  United  States?" 

McClure's  Magazine,  40:38-45  (1913). 
ATKINSON,  J.  L.     "Treaty  Relations  of  Japan  with  America  " 

Our  Day,  9:273-84  (1892). 
BALDWIN,  S.  E.    "Schooling  Rights  With  Japan."    Columbia 

Law  Review,  Feb.,  1907,  pp.  85-92. 
BENNETT,  J.  E.    "The  Japanese  on  the  Pacific  Coast."     The 

Chautauquan,  26:  186-92  (1897). 
BEVAN,  E.     "The  East,  the  West,  and  Human   Progress." 

The  Nineteenth  Century,  70:351-66  (1911). 
BRAMHALL,  J.  T.    "The  Orient  in  California."     The  World 

Today,  20 :  464-72  (1911). 
BUCKLEY,    E.    "Japanese    as    Peers    of    Western    Peoples." 

Amer.  Journ.  Soc.,  11:326-35  (1905). 
BURNETT,  A.  G.    "Misunderstanding  of  Eastern  and  Western 

States    regarding    Oriental    Immigration."     Ann.    Amer. 

Acad.,  34:257-61  (1909). 
CAPEN,  E.  W.    "Sociological  Appraisal  of  Western  Influence 

in  the  Orient."    Amer.  Journ.  Soc.,  16:734-55  (1911). 
CHENEY,    A.    E.    "Japan    and    Her    Relations    to    Foreign 

Powers."    The  Arena,  8:  455-66  (1893). 
CLEMENT,  E.  W.    "The  United  States  and  Japan."    Magazine 

of  Amer.  Hist.,  28:  129-30  (1892). 
"Expatriation  of  Japanese  Abroad."    The  Nation,  102 : 613- 

14  (1916). 
COLLINS,  C.  W.    "Will  the  Californian  Alien  Land  Law  Stand 

the  Test   of   the   Fourteenth   Amendment?"     Yale  Law 

Journal,  23:330-39  (1914). 
— -CORYN,   S.  G.  P.     "Japanese  Problem  in  California."     Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  34:262-68  (1909). 

^CREWDSON,  W.    "Japanese  Emigrants."    The  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, 56:813-19  (1909)- 
CROW,  C.    "Japan's  Progress— Myth  or  Marvel."    McBride's, 

97:62-77  (1916). 


Bibliography  215 


DAVIS,  H.     "Japanese  Wrecks  in  American  Waters."     The 

Overland  Monthly,  9'353-6o  (1872). 

-DE  FOREST,  J.  H.    "Moral  Greatness  of  the  Japanese  People." 
The  Independent,  65:83-88  (1908). 

DILLA,  H.  M.  "Constitutional  Background  of  the  Recent 
Anti-alien  Land  Bill  Controversy."  Michigan  Law  Re- 
view, 12:  573-84  (1914)- 

DILLON,  E.  J.    "The  Asiatic  Problem."     The  Contemporary 

Review,  93:243-47  (1908). 

-'DuNN,  A.  "Keeping  the  Coast  Clear."  Sunset — The  Pacific 
Monthly,  31 :  122-27  (1913)- 

EDWARDS,  P.  L.  "Industrial  Side  of  Alien  Land  Law  Prob- 
lem." The  Overland  Monthly,  n.  s.  62: 196-200  (1913). 

ELDERSHAW,  P.  S.  "The  Exclusion  of  Asiatic  Immigrants  in 
Australia."  Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:410-23  (1909). 

ELIOT,  E.  C.  "The  Treaty-Making  Power  with  Reference  to 
the  Reserved  Power  of  the  States."  Case  and  Comment, 
20:77-83  (1913). 

-  ELLIOTT,  T.  L.  "Moral  and  Social  Interests  Involved  in  Re- 
striction of  Oriental  Immigration."  Ann.  Amer.  Acad., 
34:300-305  (1909). 

<ELLIS,  G.  W.    "The  Psychology  of  American  Race  Preju- 
dice."   Journ.  Race  Development,  5:297-315  (1915). 

ELTZBACHER,    O.    "How    Japan    Reformed    Herself."    The 

Nineteenth  Century,  56:28-41   (1904). 
— • FARNHAM,  M.  H.    "Mr.  Ishiboshi,  My  Japanese  Servant  and 

Friend."    The  American  Magazine,  76:71  ff.  (1913). 
SLOWER,  B.  O.     "Justice  for  Japan."    The  Arena,  10:225-36 

(1894). 

-FOORD,  E.  A.     "East  and  West."    The  Contemporary  Review, 
97:  202-14  (1910). 

FORD,  A.  H.  "Our  Japanese  Territory."  Collier's,  43 :  No.  18, 
pp.  12-13  (1909). 

FRASER,  M.  C.  "Our  Relations  with  Japan."  The  World's 
Work,  14:8919-22  (1907). 

FRENCH,  WILLARD.  "Japan  and  Tomorrow."  North  Ameri- 
can Review,  184:825-32  (1907). 

FULTON,  C.  W.  "American  Schools  and  Japanese  Pupils." 
North  American  Review,  183:  1225-28  (1906). 

GARRETT,  G.  "Snarl  of  Waking  Asia."  Everybody's  Maga- 
zine, 32:587-600  (1915). 

GEORGE,  HENRY.  "Progress  and  Poverty  in  Japan."  The  7n- 
dependentf6s:&24-2&  (1908). 

GILMAN,  D.  C.  "The  Japanese  Indemnity  Fund."  The  Over- 
land Monthly,  10:184-89  (1873). 

-  GLYNN,  B.  "The  Orientals  and  Portola."  The  Overland 
Monthly,  n.  s.  55:204-10  (1910). 


216  The  Japanese  Invasion 

GOWEN,  H.   H.    "The  Problem  of  Oriental   Immigration   in 
the  State  of  Washington."    Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:  329-37 


4V  . 

TUREENE,   D.    C    "Anti-Japanese   Prejudice."     The    Outlook, 

95:539-40  (1910). 
GRIFFIS,  W.  E.    "Treaties  of  the  United  States  with  Japan." 

The  Andover  Review,  9:605-10  (1888). 
"Relations  Between  the  United  States  and  Japan."     The 

Mag.  of  Amer.  Hist.,  27:449-54  (1892). 
"American  Relations  with  the  Far  East."     New  England 

Mag.,  11:257-72  (1894). 
"Are  the  Japanese  Mongolian?"    North  American  Review, 

197:721-33   (1913). 
"American    Makers    of    the    New   Japan."     The   Century, 

86:597-605  (1913). 
"Our   Honor  and   Shame   with  Japan."     North  American 

Review,  200:566-75  (1914). 
GRIFFITHS,  A.  F.    "The  Japanese  Race  Question  in  Hawaii." 

Journ.  Race  Development,  6:  422-40  (1916). 
GULICK,  S.  L.    "Higher  Education  and  Our  Oriental  Prob- 

lem."   Religious  Educa  tion,  9  :  480-85  (1914). 
"America's  Oriental  Immigration  Problem."     Chicago  City 

Club  Bulletin,  7:  173-81  (1914). 
HALE,  E.  E.    "Perry's  Expedition  to  Japan."    North  Ameri- 

can Review,  83:233-60  (1856). 
^HAMMOND,  J.  H.    "The  Menace  of  Japan's  Success."     The 

World's  Work,  10:6273-75  (1905). 
—HARRIS,  M.  C.    "Japanese  on  the  Pacific  Coast."    Missionary 

Review  of  the  World,  14:684-87  (1901). 
HART,  J.  A.    "The  Oriental  Problem  as  the  Coast  Sees  It." 

The  World's  Work,  13:8690-93  (1907). 
^  HARWOOD,  W.  S.    "Americanizing  the  Japanese."    The  World 

Today,  9:  1286-92   (1905). 
HASHIGUCHI,  J.    "The  Rise  of  Modern  Japan."    The  World's 

Work,  7  :  4626-46  (  1904). 
HEARN,  LAFCADIO.    "Genius  of  Japanese  Civilization."     The 

Atlantic  Monthly,  76:449-58  (1895). 
-    HENSCHEN,  S.    "What  is  Behind  the  Japanese  Peril?"    The 

Forum,  56:63-78  (1916). 
HINMAN,  G.  W.    "Christian  Work  for  Orientals  in  America." 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  36:  501-10  (1913). 
HIROKICHI,    M.    "A    Japanese    View    of    Certain    Japanese- 
American  Relations."     The  Overland  Monthly,  n.  s.  32: 
406-14  (1898). 
HOLMAN,  C.  V.    "Our  Insult  to  Japan."    The  Arena,  37:11- 

16  (1907). 

HOLT,  H.    "Straining  an   Historic   Friendship."     The  Inde- 
pendent, 74:975-78  (1913). 


Bibliography  217 


HOUSE,    E.    H.     "Japan."     The   Atlantic  Monthly,   5:721-33 

(1860). 
"The  Present  and  Future  of  Japan."    Harper's  Magazine, 

46:858-64  (1873). 
"The  Martyrdom  of  an  Empire."     The  Atlantic  Monthly, 

47:610-23  (1881). 
'The  Thralldom  of  Japan."    The  Atlantic  Monthly,  60:721- 

34  (1887). 
HOWES,  O.    "What  Japanese  Exclusion  Would  Mean."  North 

American  Review,  184:29-34  (1907)- 
HURD,   A.    "Racial   War   in   the   Pacific."     The   Fortnightly 

Review,  99:1031-46  (1913)- 
HUTCHINSON,   W.    "The   Mongolian  as  a  Workman."     The 

World's  Work,  14:9372-76  (1907)- 
ICHIHASHI,  Y.    "The  Japanese  in  California."    Immigration, 

5:9-18  (1913). 

slilapanese  Liked  and  Disliked."     Japanese  American,  San 
Francisco.      Translated    in    New    York    Japan    Review, 
August,  1913,  PP-  109-10. 
"Japanese  Students  in  America."    The  Outlook,  87:295-97 

(1907). 
INGUS,   W.    "Playing  with    Dynamite."     Harper's    Weekly, 

57:  7  ff.  (1913). 
"Hawaii's    Lesson   to    Headstrong   California."     Harper's 

Weekly,  51:226-28  (1907). 

INUI,  K.  S.    "Japanese  Education  in  America.    National  Edu- 
cation Association  Proceedings  for  1915,  pp.  157-66. 
IRISH,  J.  P.    "Reasons  for  Encouraging  Japanese  Immigra- 
tion."   Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:94-98  (1909). 
IRWIN,  E.  P.     'The  Japanese  Peril  in  Hawaii."    The  World 

Today,  17:1038-41  (1909). 
IYENAGA,  T.    "Japan's  Mission  in  the  Far  East."    The  Forum, 

33*459-68  (1902). 
"The  Relations  of  the  United  States  with  China  and  Japan." 

Ann.  Amer.  Acad.t  54:254-59  (1914)- 
JOHNSTON,  H.    "Racial  Problems  and  the  Congress  of  Races." 

The  Contemporary  Review,  100:  149-68  (1911). 
^JORDAN,    D.    S.    "Japanese    Exclusion."     The    Independent, 

61: 1425-26  (1906). 
"Relations  of  Japan  and  the  United   States."     Pop.   Sci. 

Monthly  80:  151-57  (1912). 

-KAHN,    J.      Japanese   Question    from    Californians*    Stand- 
point."   The  Independent,  62:26-33  (1907). 
KANEKO,  K.    "The  Yellow  Peril  is  the  Golden  Opportunity 
for  Japan."    North  American  Review,  179: 641-48  (1904). 
"Japan's  Position  in  the  Far  East."    Ann.  Amer.  Acad., 

26:  77-82  (1905). 

"Japan  and  the  United  States— Partners."    North  American 
Review.  184:631-35  (1907). 


2i8  The  Japanese  Invasion 


"For  a    Better   Understanding  between    East   and   West." 

The  Independent,  63:249-52  (1907). 
"The  Effect  of  American  Residence  upon  Japanese."    Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  34:  338-39.  Ow)- 
*The  Japanese  Character  in  Transition."    New  York  Japan 

Review,  July,  1914,  p.  13. 
KASAI,  J.    "The   Relations  between  Japan  and   the  United 

States."    Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  54:260-69  (1914). 
-  KAWAKAMI,   K.   K.    "Japanese  on  American   Farms."     The 

Independent,  59:961-67  (1905). 
-"Japanese   in    California."     The   Independent,   61 :  1260-65 

(1906). 
"Japanese  in  New  England."    The  New  England  Magazine, 

n.  s.  35:440-44  (1906). 
"Naturalization   of   Japanese."    North  American  Review, 

185:394-402  (1907). 
"Japan    as   a    Colonizing    Nation."     The    World    Today, 

12:483-87  (1907). 
"The   Japanese  on  Our   Farms."     The   Forum,  50:82-93 

(1913). 
-*How  California  Treats  the  Japanese."    The  Independent, 

74'  1019  ff.  (1913). 
"Shall  America  Prepare  Against  Japan?"    North  American 

Review,  203 :  675-89  (1916). 
KELLOGG,  F.  B.     "The  Treaty-Making  Power."     New  York 

Japan  Review,  Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec.,  1913. 
KENNAN,   GEORGE.     "Which   is  the  Civilized   Power?"     The 

Outlook,  78:515-23  (1904)- 
"Japanese    in    San    Francisco    Schools."      The    Outlook, 

86:246-52  (1907). 
**Can    We    Understand    the    Japanese?"      The    Outlook, 

101 : 815-22  (1912). 
"Are  the  Japanese  Honest?"     The   Outlook,  101:1011-16 

(1912). 
"Are    the    Japanese    Moral?"    The    Outlook,    102:79-83 

(1912). 

"How  Japan  Lost  Her  Chance  in  the  Pacific."    The  Out- 
look, 107:488-93  (1914). 
KIKUCHI,  BARON.    "The   Introduction  of  Western  Learning 

into  Japan."    Japan  Advertiser,  March  4-5,  1915. 
KINNOSUKE,  A.    "The  Attitude  of  Japan  Toward  the  United 

States."    The  Independent,  62 :  1457-59  ( 1907). 
"The   Japanese    Bugaboo."     Harper's    Weekly,    59:244-46 

(1914). 
KNAPP,  A.  M.    "Japanese  Ambition."    The  Atlantic  Monthly, 

105:68-76  (1910). 

"Who  Are  the  Japanese?"    The  Atlantic  Monthly,  no:  333- 
40  (1912). 


Bibliography  219 


KOCHI,  C    "Japanese  Home  Life  as  Contrasted  with  Ameri- 
can."   The  Arena,  20 :  239-47  ( 1898) . 
KOMAI,   T.  G.    "America  and  Japan :   The  Japanese   Case." 

The  Spectator,  111:208-10  (1913). 
KOMATSU.    "Japan  and   the  United    States."     The    World's 

Work,  3:1388-93  (1901). 

KURINO,  S.      The  Future  of  Japan."     North  American  Re- 
view, 160:621-31  (1895). 
LADD,  G.  T.  -  "Mental  Characteristics  of  the  Japanese."  Scrib- 

ner's  Magazine,  17:79-93   (1895). 
^The  Business  Morals  of  Japan."    The  Century,  76:  395-400 

(1908). 
"Japan  in  the  Orient."    Journ.  Race  Devel,  6:  113-44,  237-69 

(1915-16). 
LEA,  HOMER.     "The  Legacy  of  Commodore  Perry."     North 

American  Review,  197:741-60  (1913). 
Low,  A.  M.    "Japan  and  the  Saxon."    The  Forum,  40:  309-12 

(1908). 
LUSK,  H.  H.     "The  Real  Yellow  Peril."     North  American 

Review,  186:375-83  (1907). 
MACARTHUR,    W.    "Opposition    to    Oriental    Immigration." 

Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:239-46  (1909). 
MACCAULEY,     CLAY.     "The     American- Japanese     Problem." 

Rikugo  Zasshi,  April,  1915. 
MACCLINTOCK,  S.    "Anti-Japanese  Legislation."    The  World 

Today,  16 :  269-72  ( 1909) . 
MACFARLANE,  P.  C.    "Japan  in  California."    Collier's,  51:5-6 

(1913). 
MACGOWAN.    "Japanese  Foreign  Relations."    The  Continental 

Monthly,  4:333-45  (1863). 
MAHON,   J.    "The   Japan   Question."     Amer.   Law  Review, 

Sept.-Oct,  1914,  PP.  698-713- 
MAKING,  N.    "Alien  Land  Legislation  in  California."    New 

York  Japan  Review,  Feb.,  1914,  pp.  71-73. 
MALCOLM,  R.    "Anti-Japanese  Legislation  in  California."  The 

Historical    Society    of    Southern    California,    9:97-103 

(1912-13). 
MARKINO,  Y.    "My  Experience  in  San  Francisco."    McClurc's 

Magazine,  36:  107-12  (1910). 

MARQUIS,  N.    "Inter-Racial  Amity  in  California."    The  Inde- 
pendent, 75:138-42  (1913). 
MATSUYAMA,  M.    "Japan  and  the  Western  Powers."    North 

American  Review,  127:412-26  (1878). 
MAXEY,    E.     "Our  Relations    with    Japan."      The    Forum, 

39:141-46  (1907). 
"Japanese- American    Relations."      The    Forum,    50 : 66-76 

(1913). 


220  The  Japanese  Invasion 

MCLAUGHLIN,  A.    "Chinese  and  Japanese  Immigration."  Pop. 

Sci.  Monthly,  66:  117-21  (1904). 
MIKAMI,  K.    "English  Language  and  Japanese  in  America." 

New  York  Japan  Review,  April,  1914,  pp.  135-36. 
MILLARD,   T.   F.    "Japanese    Immigration    in   Korea."     Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  34 :  403-9  ( 1009) . 

"The  Japanese  Menace."    The  Century,  91:673-82  (1916). 
MILLIS,    H.    A.    "California    and    the    Japanese."      Survey, 

30:332-36  (1913)- 

"Some  of   the   Economic   Aspects   of   Japanese   Immigra- 
tion."   Amer.  Econ.  Rev.,  5:787-804  (1915). 
MILLS,  W.  H.    "Influence  of  Japan  upon  the  Industries  of 

America."      The    Overland    Monthly,    n.  s.    27 : 587-610 

(1896). 
MIYAKAWA,  M.    "Rights  of  Aliens  in  America."    New  York 

Japan  Review,  Aug.,  1913,  pp.  91-96. 

NAGAI,  R    "The  White  Peril."    Japan  Magazine,  May,  1914. 
NEAME,    L.    E.    "Oriental   Labor   in    South    Africa."     Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  34^395-402  (1909)- 
NEWLANDS,  F.  G.    "Western  View  of  the  Race  Question." 

Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:260-71  (1909). 
NOGUCHI,   Y.    "Pacific   Ocean   Associations."     The  Nation, 

93:141    (ipn). 
"Naturalization  of  the  Japanese."     The  Nation,  96:616-17 

(1913)- 
"Stories  of  Mv  Western  Life."     The  Fortnightly  Review, 

101:263-76  (1914). 
"The    Downfall    of   Western    Civilization."     The   Nation, 

99:432  (1914). 

OZAKI,  Y.    "Misunderstood  Japan."     North  American  Re- 
view, 171 : 566-76  (1900). 
PARK,   R.    E.    "Racial   Assimilation   in   Secondary   Groups." 

Amer.  Journ.  Soc.,  19:606-23  (1914). 
PEABODY,  F.  G.    "Nagging  the  Japanese."    North  American 

Review,  198:332-40  (1913). 
-  PERKINS,  G.  C.    "The  Pacific  Coast  and  the  Orient."     The 

Independent,  62:429-34  (1907). 
^PHELAN.  J.  D.    "The  Japanese  Question  from  a  Californian 

Standpoint."     The  Independent,  74:  1439-40  (1913). 
REECE,  E.  J.    "Race  Mingling  in  Hawaii.    Amer.  Journ.  Soc., 

20:  104-18  (1914). 

REID,  G.    "Japanese  Diplomatic  Tactics."    Journ.  Race  De- 
velopment, 6:270-76  (1916). 
REINSCH,    P.    S.    "Japan   and   Asiatic   Leadership."     North 

American  Review,  180:48-57  (1905). 
"Intellectual  Life  in  Japan."    The  Atlantic  Monthly,  106: 
508-16  (1910). 


Bibliography  221 


RIDGELY,  H.  C.    "Are  the  Japanese  Unfriendly?"  The  Forum, 

50:483-85  (1913). 
ROOSEVELT,    T.     "The    Japanese    Question."      The    Outlook, 

92:  61-62  (1909). 
-^Ross,  E.  A.    "The  Causes  of  Race  Superiority."    Ann.  Amer. 

Acad.,  18:67-89  (1901). 
ROWELL,  C  H.    "Orientphobia."    Collier's,  42:  13  ff.  (Feb.  6, 

1909). 
"A  Comparison  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Immigrants."  Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  34:223-30  (1909). 
"The  Japanese  in  California."    The  World's  Work,  26:  195- 

201  (1913). 
SATOH,  H.       The  Past  and  Present  of  Japanese  Emigration 

Policy."    The  Overland  Monthly,  n.  s.  55:  108-10. 
SAVAGE-LANDOR,    A.    "Burning   Questions   of   Japan."      The 

Living  Age,  203:812-22  (1894). 
SAWYER,   E.   A.     "Japanese   Mission   Work   in   New   York." 

New  York  Japan  Review,  May,  1914,  pp.  181-83. 
SCANLAND,  J.    "The  Japanese  Invasion."    The  World  Today, 

9:899-901  (1905). 
SEITZ,  p.   G.    "The  Japanese  Overload."     North  American 

Review,  107:  733-4*  (1913)- 
SHACKFORD,  M.  H.    "Japanese  Students  at  Wellesley  College." 

New  York  Japan  Review,  Feb.,  1914,  pp.  65-66. 
SHIBUSAWA,  Y.     "America  and  Japan."     The  Century,  91 : 

541-44  (1916). 
SIMONS,  S.   E.     "Social  Assimilation."     Amer.  Journ.  Soc., 

7:386-404;  539-50  (1901). 
SINGH,  S.  N.    "The  Asiatic  View  of  Japan's  World  Menace." 

The  Overland  Monthly,  n.  s.  53:327-28  (1909). 
"Asiatic  Emigration  a  World  Question."    The  Living  Age, 

282:387-92  (1914)- 
SMITH,  G.     "The  World  Menace  of  Japan."    Cosmopolitan, 

43:604-7  (1907). 

SMITH,  J.  A.     "Relation  of  Oriental  Immigration  to  the  Gen- 
eral Immigration   Problem."    Bull.   Amer.   EC  on.  Assfn, 

1:237-42  (1911)- 
SPENCER,  H.    "A  Letter  to  Baron  Kaneko  about  the  Japanese 

Problem."     The  London   Times   (weekly  ed.),  Jan.  22, 

1004. 

STEAD,    A.    "Racial    Prejudice    against   Japan."    The    Fort- 
nightly Review,  88 : 637-51  ( 1907)  • 
STELLMAN,  L.  J.    "Yellow  Journals:  San  Francisco  Oriental 

Newspapers."   Sunset— The  Pacific  Monthly,  24 :  197-201 

(1910). 
STORY,  R.   M.    "Oriental  Immigration  into  the  Philippines." 

Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:  388-94  (1909). 

MAS,  W.  I.    "The  Psychology  of  Race  Prejudice."  Amer. 

Journ.  Soc.t  9:593-611   (1904). 


222  The  Japanese  Invasion 


"The  Significance  of  the  Orient  for  the  Occident."    Amer. 
Journ.  Soc.,  13:729-55  (1908). 

THOMSON,  W.  H.    "San  Francisco  and  the  Japanese."     The 
World  Today,  n  :  1310-13  (1906). 

THWING,  C.  F.    "Japanese  and  Chinese  Students  in  America." 
Scribner's  Magazine,  20:450-53  (1880). 

UTSUKAWA,  N.    "Status  of  Japanese  Students  in  America." 
Education,  33:  144-49  (1912). 

VEBLEN,  T.    "The  Opportunity  of  Japan."    Journ.  Race  De- 
velopment, 6 123-38  (1915)- 

VINCENT,  G.  E.    "The   Rivalry   of   Social  Groups."     Amer. 
Journ.  Soc.,  16:469-84  (1911). 

WALUS,  W.  D.    "Moral  and  Racial."    Journ.  Race  Develop- 
ment, 4:212-29  (1914). 

WEATHERLY,   W.   G.    "Race  and   Marriage."     Amer.  Journ. 
Soc.,  15:433-53  (1910)- 

WELLS,  D.  A.    "Japanese  Experience  of  Our  Civil  Service." 
The  Nation,  15:212-14  (1872). 

WHELPLEY,  J.  D.    "The  Overtaxed  Melting  Pot."    The  Fort- 
nightly Review,  101:513-20  (1914). 
"Japan  and  the  United  States."     The  Fortnightly  Review, 

101 : 885-92  (1914). 
"Are  We  Honest  with  Japan?"     The   Century,  88:105-8 

(1914). 

"East  and  West:  A  New  Line  of  Cleavage."     The  Fort- 
nightly Review,  103:883-95  (1915). 

WIGMORE,   J.    H.    "The   Reaction   in  Japan."     The   Nation, 

52:237  (1891). 
"Foreign    Jurisdiction    in   Japan."    The    Nation,   56:26-27 

(1893). 
"American   Naturalization   of   Japanese."     American   Law 

Review,  28:818-27  (1894). 
WOEHLKE,  W.  V.     "White  and  Yellow  in  California."     The 

Outlook,  104:61-65  (1912). 
"Two  Aspects  of  the  Japanese  Problem."     The  Outlook, 

105:479-80  (1913). 

YAMAJI,  A.    "Contemptible  America."    Translation  of  article 
in  the  Dokuritsu  Hyoron  by  the  Far  East,  p.  429  (June 

7,  I9U). 
YOELL,    A.    E.    "Oriental    Versus    American    Labor."     Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  34:247-56  (1909)- 
YOSHIDA,  Y.    "Sources  and  Causes  of  Japanese  Emigration." 

Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:377-87  (1909). 
YOUNG,   J.   P.    "Support   of    the   Anti-Oriental   Movement." 

Ann.  Amer.  Acad.,  34:231-38  (1909). 
YOUNG,  R.    "Foreign  Residents  in  Japan."     The  Nineteenth 

Century,  42:305-16  (1897). 
ZUMOTO,   N.    "Relations  of   the   East  to  the  West."     Ann. 

Amer.  Acad.,  36:  17-20  (supplement  1910). 


Bibliography  223 


EDITORIALS,  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES,  AND  REPORTS 

"Anti-American  Outbreaks  in  Japanese  Diet."  Current  Opin- 
ion, 56:99-100  (1914)- 

"Are  We  Facing  a  Real  Yellow  Peril  ?"  Current  Literature, 
43:  126-31  (1907). 

"Attacks  on  Japanese  in  San  Francisco."  The  Outlook,  86: 
460-62  (1907). 

"The  Backbone  of  Japanese  Public  Opinion  on  Japanese- 
American  Relations."  New  York  Japan  Review,  Sept., 

1913,  PP.  159-64. 
"California    and    the    Japanese."    The    Outlook,    105:477-80 

(1913). 
"Can  We  Assimilate  the  Japanese?"    Literary  Digest,  47 :  165- 

66  (1913). 
"The  Confession  of  a  Japanese  Servant."    The  Independent, 

59:661-68  (1905). 

"The  Diabolical  Japanese."    The  Independent,  86:  125  (1916). 
"Diplomatic    Communications    with   Japan."      The   Outlook. 

107:578-80  (1914). 
"Dream  Book:  War  between  Japan  and  the  United  States 

Published   in   the   Hearst   Newspapers."     The   Outlook 

in:535-36  (1915)- 
"The  Ethnological  Basis  of  the  Japanese  Claim  to  be  a  White 

Race."    Current  Opinion,  55:38-39  (1913). 


"Freaks  of  Race  Prejudice."    The  Nation,  88:54  (1909). 

"How  Foreigners  Are  Treated  in  Japan."  Harper's  Weekly, 
51:  1083-84  (1907). 

"How  the  San  Francisco  Japanese  School  Case  Was  Settled." 
New  York  Japan  Review,  pp.  129-30  (Sept.,  1913)- 

"Immigration  from  Japan."  Bradstreefs,  p.  268  (Oct.  25, 
1884). 

"Is  the  United  States  a  World  Power?  Japanese  in  Califor- 
nia." North  American  Review,  183:  1107-19  (1906). 

"Japan  and  Its  Intercourse  with  Foreign  Nations."  Prater's, 
51:145-56  (1855).  ; 

"Japan."    The  Atlantic' Monthly,  5:721-33  (1860). 

"Japan's  Protest  agamst  Hawaiian  Annexation."  Literary 
Digest,  15:  333  (1867). 

"Japan's  View  of  the  White  Peril."  Literary  Digest,  46:  1326 
(1913). 

"The  Japanese  Embassy  in  America."  Frank  Leslie's  Illus- 
trated Newspaper,  ^fay  26,  June  2,  9,  23,  30,  July  7,  1860. 

"The  Japanese  Embassy  in  America."  Harper's  Weekly, 
May  26,  June  23,  30,  1860. 

"Japanese  in  New  York."    The  Independent,  June  21,  1860. 

"Japanese  in  Washington."     Erery  Saturday,  11:295  (1871). 


224  The  Japanese  Invasion 

"The  Japanese  Embassy  in  Chicago."     The  Chicago  Times, 

Feb.  27-28,  1872. 

"Japanese  Treaty  Revision."    The  Nation,  46:254-55  (1888). 
"Japanese  Conceit."    Literary  Digest,  9:595  (1894). 
"Japanese  in  United  States  and  Opinion  in  Tokyo."    Current 

Literature,  43 :  483-92  ( 1907). 

"Japanese  Immigration."    The  Outlook,  97:  151-54  (1911). 
"Japanese    Schools    in    America."    Literary    Digest,   44 : 585 

(1912). 
"Japanese   Population  and  Land  Ownership  in  California." 

New  York  Japan  Review,  July,  1913,  pp.  7-8. 
"Japanese  Law  Relating  to  Foreigner's  Right  of  Ownership 

in  Land."    Law  Quarterly  Review,  30:91-96  (1914). 
"Japanese    Rights    in   America."    Literary   Digest,   49 : 48-50 

(1914). 
"Japanese    Conceptions    of    America."    Sunset — The    Pacific 

Monthly,  34:346  (1915). 

"Oriental  Immigration."    The  Outlook,  87:99-100  (1907). 
"Physical  Reconstruction  of  the  Japanese."    Literary  Digest, 

32:794   (1006). 
"Political     Tragedies    in    Japan."     Blackwood's,    91 : 424-33 

(1862). 
"Poverty  of  the  Japanese  Peasantry."    Literary  Digest,  44: 

1292  (1912). 
"The  Race  Issue  in  the  Japanese  Problem."     Literary  Digest, 

46:  1200-10  (1913). 
"Reception  of  the  American  Battle  Fleet  at  Tokyo."     The 

Outlook,  90  -.460-61  (1908). 

Reports  of  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  of  California. 
Reports  of  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  of  Oregon. 
Reports  of  the  Board  of  Immigration,  Labor,  and  Statistics  of 

Hawaii. 

Reports  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration. 
Reports  of  the  Immigration  Commission  (1907-10),  vols.  23, 

24,  39.    Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  1911. 
"San  Francisco  and  the  Japanese  Children."    The  Outlook, 

84:644-45  (1906). 

"Superhuman  Japanese."    The  Nation,  86:  51-52  (1908). 
"Thoughts    from    the    Dishpan."      The    Outlook,   85:951-53 

(1907). 

"Traffic  in  Japanese  Girls."    Literary  Digest,  9:384  (1894). 
"Treatment  of   Foreigners   by   Japan."    Current   Literature, 

46:255-58  (1909). 

"Treaties  with  Japan."    The  Living  Age,  48:661-62  (1856). 
"Typical  Anti-American  Article."    New  York  Japan  Review, 

Aug.,  1913,  pp.  100-101. 
"Who  May  Be  Naturalized."    Law  Notes,  13:202-03  (1910). 


INDEX 


INDEX 

Agriculture,  Japanese  immigrants  in,  121. 

Agricultural  class  in  Japan,  102  ff. 

American  attitude  of  superiority,  196. 

American  friendliness  for  Japanese,  70. 

American  government,  Attitude  toward  Japan  of,  72. 

Anti-foreign  articles  in  Japanese  press,  31. 

Anti-Japanese  Convention,  43. 

Aoki,  Viscount,  Marriage  of,  157. 

Asiatic  immigration,  World  significance  of,  198. 

Assimilation  of  Japanese,  96  ff.,  no,  in. 

Atkinson,  J.  L.,  on  western  customs  in  Japan,  26. 

Baelz,  on  Eurasian  children  in  Japan,  164. 
Bailey,  T.  P.,  analysis  of  race  prejudice,  70. 
Bennett,  J.  E.,  on  Japanese  as  servants,  114. 
Boas,  Franz,  on  racial  differences,  98. 
Bramhall,  J.  T.,  on  employers'  attitude  toward  Japanese,  81. 
Brinkley,  Captain,  on  attitude  of  medieval  Japan  toward  foreign- 
ers, 16;  on  health  of  Eurasian  children,  165. 
British  Columbia,  Japanese  schools  in,  144. 
Brown,  A.  M.,  on  Japanese  industry,  74. 
Bryan,  W.  J.,  conference  with  Ambassador  Chinda,  73. 
Buddhist  missions  among  Japanese  in  America,  143. 
Business  associations,  types  of,  135. 

California,  Alien  land  law,  57;  expression  of  friendship  for 
Japan  by  colleges  of,  76;  prejudice  against  Japanese  in,  82-84. 

Cary,  Otis,  on  expulsion  of  Christians  from  Japan,  17. 

Chicago,  Japanese  organizations  in,  141;  prejudice  against  Jap- 
anese in,  109. 

China,  death  rate  in,  203 ;  effects  of  western  civilization  on,  203 ; 
Japan's  victory  over,  37;  over  population  in,  202;  poverty 
in,  202. 

Chinese,  attitude  of  superiority,  99;  changed  attitude  toward 
western  civilization,  197. 

Chinese  immigration,  opposition  to,  38. 

227 


228 Index 

Chinese  immigrants,  difference  between  Japanese  and,  38;  soli- 
darity of,  108. 

Christian  Embassy  to  Japan,  77. 
Christian  mission  work  for  Japanese,  142. 
Clement,  E.  W.,  on  Christianity  in  Japan,  26. 
Colored  races,  problem  of  mingling  of  white  and,  184. 
Congress,  Japanese  Embassy  in,  12. 
Conklin,  E.  G.,  on  amalgamation  of  races,  173. 
Contractors,  efficiency  of  Japanese,  132. 
Cooperative  housekeeping  among  Japanese  immigrants,  133. 

Davis,  H.,  on  shipwrecked  Japanese,  3. 

De  Forest,  J.  H.,  on  Japanese  attitude  toward  the  west,  24;  moral 

greatness  of  the  Japanese,  71. 

Domestic  servants,  Japanese  as,  H2ff. ;  in  Japan,  120. 
Dunn,  A.,  on  economic  aspects  of  Japanese  problem,  80. 
Dutch  influence  on  Japan,  19. 

Economic  aspect  of  Japanese  problem,  80,  181,  182. 
Economic  conditions,  adaptability  of  Japanese  to  American,  126. 
Economic  forces  back  of  Oriental  immigration  problem,  206. 
Embassy  from  Japan  to  America,  5  ff. 
English,  Japanese  immigrants  knowledge  of,  104. 
European  immigration,  American  attitude  toward,  175,  176;  dif- 
ferences between  Oriental,  immigration  and,  176,  177. 
Europeanization  of  society  in  Japan,  26. 
Exclusion,  Japan's  policy  of,  3,  17. 
Extra-territoriality  in  Japan,  21. 

Farnham,  M.  H.,  on  loyalty  of  Japanese  servants,  120. 
Federal  Council  of  Churches  of  Christ,  76. 
Foreign  customs  in  Japan,  100. 

"Gang"  system  of  employment,  130. 

"Gentlemen's  Agreement,"  48. 

Gulick,  S.  L.,  on  assimilation  of  the  Japanese,  98;  inadvisability 
of  intermarriage,  162-3;  Japanese  use  of  newspaper  press, 
146;  necessity  of  restricted  immigration,  186;  oriental  atti- 
tude toward  the  west,  24,  29;  proposed  solution  of  immigra- 
tion problem,  186,  187. 

Hawaii,  Japanese  laborers  in,  41. 

Hawks,  F.  L.,  on  Perry's  expedition  to  Japan,  4. 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  on  difficulties  of  the  Japanese  language,  95. 


Index 229 

Holman,  C.  V.,  on  prejudice  against  Japanese,  85. 
Houston,  Japanese  in,  124. 

Ichihashi,  Y.,  on  occupations  of  Japanese  immigrants,  102;  west- 
ern dislike  of  Japan,  34,  35. 

Immigrants,  occupation  of  Japanese,  51. 

Immigration,  act  regulating  Japanese,  47;  present  regulations  of 
Japanese,  49 ;  proposed  amendment  to  present  law,  186. 

Immorality  of  Japanese  women,  140. 

India,  Eurasians  in,  149. 

Industrial  transition  in  Japan,  199. 

Intermarriage,  examples  in  Japan  of,  159  ff. ;  examples  of  Jap- 
anese-American families  in  America,  168  ff. ;  frequency  in 
America,  167;  objections  to,  171-72;  prejudice  against,  152  ff. 

Japanese,  appearance  and  clothing  of,  10;  associations  in  Amer- 
ica, 137  ff. ;  children  in  America,  51 ;  hostility  toward  America, 
61 ;  indirectness  of,  115;  number  of  arrivals  each  year,  50; 
pride  and  conceit,  37 ;  schools  in  America,  144 ;  skill  in  agri- 
culture, 75 ;  their  favorable  attitude  toward  western  civiliza- 
tion, 99;  vernacular  press  in  America,  146. 

Japanese  attitude,  Misconceptions  of,  30. 

Japanese  immigration,  crux  of  problem,  60,  177;  danger  of  unre- 
stricted, 185. 

Japanese  immigrants,  attitude  of  employers  toward,  81 ;  language 
difficulties,  104;  occupations  of,  102;  ownership  of  land,  124. 

Japanese  menace,  91,  92. 

Japanese  problem,  its  complex  nature,  81. 

Japanese  quarters  in  western  cities,  106. 

Jewish  reaction  to  race  prejudice,  192. 

Kawakami,  K.,  on  Japanese  association  with  Americans,  107; 
Japanese  attitude  toward  the  west,  25;  Japanese  as  farm 
laborers,  122;  standard  of  living  of  Japanese  immigrants,  127. 

Kennan,  G.,  on  Japan's  policy  of  exclusion,  3;  segregation  of 
Japanese  pupils,  46. 

Kikuchi,  Baron,  on  western  learning  in  Japan,  19. 

Kinnosuke,  A.,  on  Japanese  attitude  toward  America,  55. 

Kobe,  M.,  on  California  anti-Japanese  movement,  59. 

Korea,  Japanese  emigration  to,  200. 

Labor  conditions  in  Japan,  200. 

Ladd,  G.  T.,  on  Japanese  attitude  toward  the  west,  28. 


Index 


Lawton,  on  problem  of  intermarriage,  155. 

Lowell,  Percival,  on  idiosyncrasies  of  the  Japanese,  95. 

Loyalty  of  the  Japanese,  120. 

MacCauley,  C,  on  economic  aspect  of  Japanese  problem,  181. 

MacGowan,  on  Japanese  attitude  toward  foreigners,  21. 

Markino,  Y.,  on  his  experience  in  San  Francisco,  40. 

Marriage  of  Japanese  immigrants,  139. 

Mexico,  Japanese  in,  i. 

McLaughlin,  A.,  on  assimilation  of  the  Japanese,  97. 

Michigan,  opposition  to  Japanese  in,  86. 

Mikami,  K.,  on  Japanese  immigrants'  knowledge  of  English,  105. 

Millis,  H.  A.,  on  necessity  of  restriction  of  immigration,  185. 

Missionaries,  attitude  toward  Japanese,  69;  non-assimilation  of, 

93;  social  relations  between  Japanese  and,  no. 
Murdock,  J.,  on  early  Portuguese  discoveries  as  Christian  propa- 

gandists, 18;  Roman  Catholics  in  Japan,  2. 
Mutual  benefit  societies,  135. 

Nagai,  R.,  on  Japanese  dislike  of  western  domination,  58. 

Negroes,  Japanese  dislike  of,  125. 

Newspapers,  Sensational  character  of  Japanese,  32. 

New  York,  Japanese  association  in,  140;  Japanese  Embassy  in,  7. 

Nitobe,  I.,  on  English  language  in  Japan,   101  ;  Japanese  inter- 

course with  America,  4  ;  occupations  of  Japanese  immigrants, 

113;  standard  of  living  in  Japan,  128. 
Noguchi,  Yone,  on  his  opinion  of  the  West,  30. 
Nuttall,  Z.,  on  Japan's  relation  with  Mexico,  2. 

Occupation  of  Japanese  immigrants,  112. 

Okuma,  Marquis,  on  American  treatment  of  Japanese,  54. 

Omori,  Dr.  T.,  attacked  in  San  Francisco,  46. 

Organization  of  Japanese  labor,  132. 

Organizations,  Japanese  success  in  maintaining,  148. 

Otani,  K.,  on  lack  of  education  of  Japanese  immigrants,  65. 

Ownership  of  land  by  Japanese  immigrants,  124. 

Park,  R.  E.,  on  racial  assimilation,  178. 
Perry,  Commodore,  4. 
Persecution  of  Christians  in  Japan,  17. 
Philadelphia,  Japanese  Embassy  in,  9,  13. 
Philippines,  Japanese  in  the,  i. 
"Picture  bride"  movement,  138. 


Index 


Portuguese  in  Japan,  16. 

Prefectural  clubs,  136. 

Prejudice  of  Japanese  against  the  West,  19. 

Producers'  associations,  134. 

Race  prejudice,  against  orientals,  78,  189;  Bailey's  analysis  of,  69; 

in  American  colleges,  87;  its  tendency  to  break  down,  191. 
Racial  factors,  importance  of,  190. 
Reaction  against  foreign  customs,  27. 
Religious  work  among  Japanese  immigrants,  142. 
Roberts,  P.,  on  cooperative  housekeeping  among  Japanese  immi- 

grants, 133. 

Roman  Catholics  in  Japan,  2. 
Roosevelt,  opposition  to  exclusion  movement,  45;  restriction  of 

Japanese  immigrants,  52. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  on  birth  rate  in  China,  204;  poverty  in  China,  202. 
Rowell,  C.  H.,  on  danger  of  yellow  invasion,  78,  79. 

San  Francisco,  Japanese  Embassy  in,  5  ;  opposition  to  Japanese  in, 

40,  42. 
Segregation,  in  Japanese  quarters,  106;  of  Japanese  pupils,  43, 

45,  46. 

Simons,  S.  E.,  on  non-assimilation  of  Chinese  immigrants,  108. 
Solidarity  of  Japanese  immigrants,  147. 
Soyeda,  J.,  on  Japanese  problem,  59,  63. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  on  intermarriage,  150. 
Standard  of  living  in  Japan,  103,  104,  126. 
Suspicion  of  Japan,  American  attitude  of,  89  ff. 
Suyehiro,  S.,  on  Japanese  demand  for  equal  rights,  67. 

Thomas,  W.  I.,  on  racial  differences,  97;  reasons  for  changed 

attitude  toward  Japan,  36. 
Trade  guilds,  135,  136. 
Trade  unions,  Japanese  excluded  from,  83. 
Treaties,  between  America  and  Japan,  21  ;  revision  of,  27. 

University  of  Chicago,  Japanese  students  in,  86. 

Washington,  Japanese  Embassy  in,  5. 

Wilson,  President,  Letter  on  attitude  toward  Japan,  73. 

Woehlke,  W.  V.,  on  non-assimilation  of  orientals,  79. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  attitude  toward  Japanese,  82,  83. 
Yoshida,  on  rural  Japanese  emigrants,  103. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  oo  the  last  dare  scamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  dace  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

KtUU  LU 


JAN    ? 


u~ 


•i      -. 


.  , 

4  1980 

WW  2  01988 


-  (JtO 


JUN  3  0  1QQQ 

'O. 

c. 

o  1988 


(G4427nlO )  47 


oeneraJ  Library 

Univerjiry  of  California 

Berkeley 


0104 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


